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• REDD+ projects are associated with an increase in forest carbon. • Forests recovered due to improved governance, community engagement, land use planning and capacity building. • REDD+ projects neither improved nor harmed livelihoods. • When designed appropriately, REDD+ has the potential to simultaneously improve welfare and reduce carbon emissions. This paper investigates the impacts of REDD+ in two pilot sites in the districts of Kilosa and Kondoa in Tanzania. We pose two questions: First: What are the impacts of REDD+ on social welfare? and second: What are the impacts of REDD+ on forest carbon storage? The study employs the Before-After/Control-Intervention research design and a mixed method approach to draw conclusions on REDD+ impacts. A theory-based evaluation is then used to understand the underlying causal mechanisms driving the observed changes. In estimating REDD+ impacts on income, we account for potential selection bias by matching pilot and control villages on factors likely to influence selection and outcomes and by using fixed effects panel data modelling. REDD+ impacts on forest carbon are measured using satellite imagery and ground truthing, combining data on the amount of forestland converted to other land uses, with information on how much carbon remains trapped in the forests after the land use changes. Results suggest that in terms of total income, REDD+ neither improves nor harms livelihoods in the two pilot areas. REDD+ however, increased forest income in the Kilosa pilot. REDD+ is also associated with increased forest carbon in both Kilosa and Kondoa. We discuss what could explain these seemingly contradictory developments. Three policy implications arise from the results 1) the need for REDD+ projects to involve NGOs/implementing partners that have a good understanding of local conditions, as local contexts play a central role in determining welfare and forest carbon outcomes 2) the importance of strengthening forest governance and management for facilitating a balance in livelihoods and forest cover improvements and 3) the significance of considering economic risk, safety nets and insurance against risk in the design of REDD+ projects, as a failure to do so, will lead to overexploitation of forests during periods of economic crisis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+) is generally believed to be a cost-effective mitigation strategy against climate change. Some suggest, however, that costs of REDD+ are underestimated because many studies either exclude or undervalue transaction costs. A major challenge in this field of research is the absence of a common framework and methodology for assessing such costs. This paper uses the notion of governance structures to suggest a generic definition and methodology for measuring transaction costs. The methodology is subsequently used in an analysis of transaction costs for REDD+ pilots in RDS Rio Negro, Brazil and Kilosa, Tanzania. Results indicate higher unit costs – costs per ton of reduced CO 2 – of establishing the REDD+ governance structures in Kilosa, while unit costs of using those structures are higher in RDS Rio Negro. The results also show that while REDD+ was originally conceived as a market i.e., a direct trade between buyers and sellers, it could also take on a non-market governance structure or a mixture of market and non-market elements. These different forms of governance structures have implications for transaction costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes the expanded role of private actors and markets in environmental governance. The public goods dimension of environmental services renders privatization and trading challenging. To illustrate the key issues involved, a series of privatization efforts and market creations are reviewed. Despite the focus on privatization, the empirical material shows that the role of the state is still very pronounced. It defines the commodities and property rights, and plays a key role in setting up and regulating the markets. In the case of payments for ecosystem services, public authorities even appear as the dominant ‘trader’. Privatization and markets may reduce costs of delivering the service, while this is not universally true. Moreover, the service delivered often is transformed to make trade possible. Finally, high transaction costs may prohibit the creation of markets. The conflict between public goods delivery and private profit motive makes public control both important and difficult. Finally, several distributional issues following this neo-liberal development are highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study contributes to the literature on public responses to climate policies in two ways. We investigate the effect of institutional contexts on attitudes toward policies, and we examine the relevance of political values for these effects. Institutional theory suggests that the institutional context influences whether “individual rationality” (IR) or “social rationality” (SR) frames choices. To investigate the effects of such contexts and political values on attitudes toward policies aimed at reducing private car use, we conducted a survey experiment involving 1500 car owners in Oslo, Norway. One group of respondents received a text emphasizing the individual health gains from reducing local air pollution (IR context), a second group received a text emphasizing the social responsibility for avoiding climate change (SR context), and a control group received no such text. We found effects of the contexts on attitudes toward emission-reducing policies, and found that the effects vary across individuals with different political values. The SR context yielded higher support for an increase in petrol prices among non-individualists only. The IR context yielded higher support for a decrease in space for cars among both non-individualists and individualists. Ways forward regarding expanding this field of research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ability of economic incentives to promote environmentally friendly behavior has been questioned in the literature. Most studies investigating this issue are grounded in the agent-based rational choice model. The aim of this study is to expand our insights by applying an alternative theoretical framework combining elements from classical institutional economics and self-determination theory to study incentives for waste sorting. The analysis is based on data from a Norwegian municipality, Ulstein, which introduced and later terminated a differentiated waste fee. There are three main findings. First, the important role of normative motivation for sorting household waste is confirmed. Second, the economic incentive had a divisive effect on the motivation to sort household waste. Perceived autonomy linked to fundamental values about environmental concern seems to play an important role in explaining why half the sample reports no extra efforts in sorting waste as a response to the economic incentive. The other half was influenced by the external logic given to them (i.e., to save costs and hence report increased motivation to sort household waste). Finally, an increased practice of illegal waste disposal was observed as a response to the differentiated waste fee. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper adds to our understanding of how people's climate change concern and norms influence their leisure air travel. It does so by examining the roles of Norwegians' beliefs about climate change and emissions from air travel, their felt responsibility to limit emissions (personal norm), and expectations and behaviors of friends and family (social norms) in such travel. A representative sample of Norwegians was surveyed in 2019 and 2020 (N = 2842), based on a framework combining institutional and social-psychological perspectives. Structural equation modeling of the data reveals that leisure air travel is habituated and part of a lifestyle, supported by social norms, self-enhancement values and urban residency. Personal norms for reducing greenhouse gas emissions from flying are beginning to emerge in Norway, but their effect on leisure air travel is small and only indirect. Our findings suggest the need for interventions to complement and potentially amplify the emerging moralization process and support an evolution of new habits and travel lifestyle to limit the emissions from leisure air travel substantially. The disruption of travel habits by the COVID-19 pandemic might ease such a process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to clarify what is meant by ‘markets for ecosystem services (ES)’. The defining characteristic of markets is interaction through trade. Two main dimensions are identified as basis for classifying markets in ES. Firstly, we have markets with and without intermediaries. Secondly, some markets for ES are created by defined liabilities like caps on emissions while other trades come about voluntarily. Altogether six forms of markets are identified, with two being incomplete. The paper also offers an analysis of the most important existing markets for ES using the developed classification. Regarding payments for ecosystem services (PES), most are not markets, not even incomplete. This is so as most resources are raised through taxes or fees — command not trade. Moreover, most payments are best characterized as subsidies. Cap-and-trade systems like those for carbon qualify as markets, but depend crucially on the politically defined cap. Moreover, it is this cap that protects the environment. While the idea with markets in ES is to ‘escape’ command and control, it is observed that C&C is essential for these markets to work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Developing institutions to handle human--environment interactions well is important. In relation to that, the theory of resource regimes, and the themes of fit, interplay, and scale--as originating not least in the work of Oran Young--are core. His work is very impressive. At the same time we observe two sets of issues where we think further development is needed. The first relates to the ontological underpinning of Young's conceptual framework. The second set of issues concerns the definitions of and the relationships between the concepts of fit, interplay, and scale. Regarding the former, we emphasize issues related to "marrying" different theories about human action. Regarding the latter, we note that while the three concepts have a lot of practical appeal, there are still some important challenges surfacing, not least when using them in empirical research. We analyze three challenges: the definitions of the concepts; their internal overlap; and finally, the way environmental regimes are defined and understood as opposed to the wider institutional context of the economy. Our paper offers some direction for how to move forward on the issues specified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes the capabilities of three different governance regimes for adequately handling uncertain and unknown effects of genetically modified (GM) crops. Adequate handling requires the development of sound procedures for identification of uncertainty and ignorance (U&I), reduction of U&I, decisions on how to treat irreducible U&I and monitoring of unexpected effects. The nature of U&I implies, however, that these procedures will be highly incomplete. Governance mechanisms that facilitate cooperative adaptation and communicative rationality are therefore needed. The three governance regimes (GRs) compared are: GM-crops are produced by private firms and these firms are made liable for harm (GR1); GM-crops are produced by private firms and the government decides whether the crops should be marketed (GR2); and GM-crops are produced and the government decides whether the crops should be marketed (GR3). The effect of bringing the civil society into the decision-making process is also analyzed. GR3 will be stronger in cooperative adaptation and communicative rationality than GR2. Public research organizations have fewer conflicts of interest with the government than private firms, and academic norms are important. Difficulties in proving harm and identifying the responsible firm will make GR1 weak in cooperative adaptation and communicative rationality. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In this paper the characteristics and functioning of PES is analyzed from an institutional perspective. While in theory PES is seen as a market solution to environmental problems — as an alternative to state (hierarchical) and community governance — a review of a large amount of case studies shows that PES in practice depends rather fundamentally on state and/or community engagement. Hence PES are foremost a reconfiguration of the roles of public bodies and communities becoming core intermediaries or ‘buyers’. First, to establish PES, rights to the land that delivers the environmental service must be clarified. This demands public action. Second, transacting over environmental amenities is very costly. Creating ‘markets’ for environmental services depends therefore crucially on state and community facilitation. Hence ‘buyers’ are often public agencies. High transaction costs also influence price setting. Payments do not follow the market format as intermediaries frequently are setting the price, with users often being unaware even of the fact that they pay. Finally, the distinction between payments as incentives and as fair compensations is emphasized. While payments may strengthen community relations and simplify action for environmental care, they may also introduce a purely instrumental logic and in some cases worsen the environmental status by crowding out environmental virtues. For the future, greater awareness of these dynamics is warranted. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper focuses on a set of issues when choosing between methods for environmental appraisal. Approaches like cost benefit analysis/contingent valuation, multicriteria analysis and deliberative methods are based on very different assumptions concerning the characteristics of environmental resources, the capacities of the individuals involved and the role the methods play in framing the process. The present paper views environmental appraisal methods as institutional structures. They are seen as rules concerning a) who should participate and in which capacity, b) what is considered data and which form data should take, and c) rules about how a conclusion is reached. Specifically, the choice of method defines the logic of the appraisal process and next influences the output. While cost benefit analysis is based on the assumption of individual rationality, deliberative methods assume that individuals can act according to social rationality. The first part of the paper is devoted to clarifying what institutions are and their role in the valuation process. Second, the main features of environmental or ecosystem services and the demands they raise for decision-making are described. A general framework for evaluating appraisal methods is then developed. Finally, this structure is elaborated in more detail as a basis for deciding over the choices of methods in the case of evaluating ecosystem services. A set of unresolved issues are identified ¿ especially related to how the choice of appraisal methods themselves should be instituted. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The persistent observation of cooperative behavior in situations where defecting would be individually preferable challenges the standard hypothesis of individual utility maximization. This has advanced search for alternative ways of understanding choice. Proposals dominantly include expanding the kind of arguments to be included into the utility function. The paper identifies some pertinent problems with these explanations. An alternative model based on the idea of plural rationality and institutions-as-rationality-context is developed. The model is confronted with data from existing experiments. Implications for public policy and ideas for further research are emphasized. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The European Union (EU) and Norway have assessed the release of genetically modified organisms as commercial products quite differently. Of twenty-four notifications approved by the EU, Norway has approved four, rejected ten, and has ten pending. We analyse whether these differences could be explained by different value judgments. Three aspects of the formulation and implementation of the regulations are discussed: the effects to be prevented and encouraged, response to uncertainty and ignorance, and the burden of proof necessary. Norwegian rejections are found to be explicable by the combination of no real benefit to society, lack of scientific knowledge, and involved risks. EU approvals are based upon seeing no reason to believe that there will be any adverse effects on health and the environment. We conclude that problems arise when value conflicts are understood and treated solely as technical issues, as normal in the EU. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Environmental value transfer needs to be understood in the context of scientific information use in general. This provides a different perspective upon the reasons why benefit transfer in particular appears so controversial and raises concerns over the limited types of validity testing being undertaken by those supporting such applications as ecosystem services valuation. Another key issue, which we emphasise, is the unintentional challenge to standard economic theory raised by the models used to conduct value transfers. Existing value transfer practice reveals the need for a more inclusive approach if environmental values are to be addressed. We argue that there are robust alternative means for including multiple environmental values in decision processes, these cannot be dismissed out of hand, and analysts should be expanding their understanding of the available approaches which include attitude and norm measures, multi-criteria analysis and participatory deliberative institutions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper presents a methodology for analyzing the effect of policies focused at reducing pollution from agriculture. Such a methodology must take into account that agricultural pollution is an effect of a large set of interacting processes, covers many different substances, and may vary substantially due to shifts in natural and economic conditions. Thus, the methodology must both cover the specificities of the different processes/disciplines involved and foster integration across these in a consistent way. The basic challenge is to cover the non-linear fine-scale variations at different levels of land-based production systems. Our methodology is founded on the idea of partitioning. It implies structuring and simplifying existing variation in space and time into partitions that are considered homogeneous. These partitions are organized in a hierarchy, and the different processes involved are modeled at the relevant level. We have concluded that analyses with fairly high level of resolution are preferable. This way it is also possible to combine a systems perspective with disciplinary integrity. A modeling structure – ECECMOD (2.0) – based on the developed principles is documented. The paper also shows the ability of this structure to simulate choice of farming practices and emissions that are well in accordance with observations from four Norwegian regions with very different agricultural and natural conditions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper is about how institutions determine choices and the importance of this for environmental policy. The model of individual rational choice from neoclassical economics is compared with the model of socially determined behavior. While in the first case, institutions are either exempted from or understood as mere economizing constraints on behavior, the latter perspective views institutions as basic structures necessary also to enable people to act. The paper develops a way to integrate the individualistic model into the wider perspective of social constructivism by viewing it as a special form of such construction. On the basis of this synthesis three issues with relevance for environmental economics are discussed. First, the role of institutional factors in the process of preference formation is emphasized. Next, the role of institutions for the choice of desired states of the environment is analyzed. Finally, the effect of various policy instruments to motivate people to produce these states is discussed. It is concluded that the core policy issue is to determine which institutional frameworks are most reasonable to apply to which kind of problem. Issues, which from the perspective of neoclassical economics are pure technical, become serious value questions if understood from an institutional perspective. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Focuses on the relationship of environmental resources and property regimes to efficiency. Distinction of various property regimes; Implication of degree of co-ownership of state property; Role of property regimes in defending interest.

This paper analyses two strategies to reduce the use of pesticides in grain production. We study Norwegian farmers' willingness to voluntarily forego income by reducing pesticide use as well as their responses to a doubling of the pesticide price (through increased pesticide taxes). We use mixed methods including an experiment, a survey and focus group discussions. The experiment shows that most farmers are willing to sacrifice some income to reduce environmental risks by using less pesticide. According to the survey, they are, at the same time, relatively insensitive to a 100% price increase on herbicides and fungicides. While the response to the price increase probably would have been stronger if differentiated between chemicals, our research indicates potential benefits from supporting voluntary action. Value orientations and agronomic conditions influence the stated responses in both circumstances. Respondents emphasizing environmental values are more willing to voluntarily reduce pesticide use and show a greater response to the economic incentive than farmers emphasizing economic outcome and issues such as clean fields. A hypothesized willingness to reduce pesticide use voluntarily to strengthen the reputation of the sector was, however, rejected. Farmers appear to have few alternatives to pesticides, but increased knowledge about the alternatives that do exist, seems able to promote some change. Our findings suggest that the extension service should put greater emphasis on these options, even if they may have negative effects on income. • Farmers state willingness to forego income to reduce environmental impacts. • Both voluntary action and price incentives may reduce pesticide use. • Traditional farmer values and lack of substitutes hinders reduced pesticide use. • Farmers holding environmental norms seem most willing to reduce use of pesticides. • More knowledge on IPM and changed focus of extension may reduce pesticide use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Sustainability demands changes in both political and economic institutions. • Ecological economics should draw on institutional and political theory. • Present environmental policies are not suited to handle systems with tipping-points. • A parliamentary reform could strengthen the role of the future in policy-making. • Creating firms based on social rationality is key in a needed economic reform. Ecological economists are engaged in developing foundations for a sustainable future. To further develop our ability to deliver, I propose that we expand our analyses by a) drawing more on institutional theory and b) include also political processes in our research. The present political-economic system is unable to ensure sustainable futures. The paper argues that the root of the problem lies in its institutional structures. I illustrate possible changes to these that could take societies onto a sustainable development path. Focus here is on creating institutions able to strengthen the role of the future in decision-making. Here I focus on both political and economic institutions, illustrating how a change in these could ensure sustainability. I also discuss changes in environmental regulation strategies. The analyses of different options are used to illustrate what kind of studies are needed to advance sustainability. They form the basis for specifying directions that ecological economics could take to further support a necessary societal transformation process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

More sustainable consumption is urgently called for but emerging very slowly at best. This paper contributes to the empirical foundation for understanding the role of norms in shaping, reinforcing, and changing consumption patterns. Drawing on institutional and social psychological theories and research, we investigate the development in normative influences on red meat consumption – a climate relevant behavior – over time. We apply cross lagged SEM analyses utilizing survey data from a representative sample of the Norwegian population the years 2019, 2020, and 2021. Red meat consumption is strongly supported by social norms in Norway but seems to be challenged by the societal attention to its negative climate impacts. Such attention may lead people to internalize norms for a climate-friendly diet and thus reduce their red-meat consumption. We find, however, that the influence of pro-climate mitigation norms on red meat consumption is weak and was further weakened in the 2020–21 period, during the Covid19 pandemic. An important question is whether and how policy measures can nurture pro-climate mitigation norms to reach a social "tipping point" regarding meat consumption. Implications for future research on norm dynamics are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We draw on institutional and ecological economics to understand the role of social preferences, institutional arrangements, and power dynamics in mobilizing or restraining ecosystem services and values in Norwegian forest governance. Specifically, we i) elicit local people's preferences over forest ecosystem services and values, ii) analyze how perceptions of forest values vary across stakeholders, and iii) examine how participation is enabled by institutional arrangements. Our data were collected from a survey (N = 1694) distributed in 10 rural municipalities and from interviews with Norwegian forest experts and stakeholders (N = 15). Four results are highlighted. First, most respondents rank ecosystem services that embody relational and intrinsic values (such as recreation and biodiversity) higher than services that primarily embody instrumental values (timber). Second, women and non-forest owners show higher appreciation for relational values than men and forest owners. Third, dominant value-articulating institutions, such as timber markets and cost-benefit analysis, favor utility, efficiency, and instrumental values. Finally, few participatory arenas for decision-making are available, and local people do not feel empowered in forest governance. Our findings indicate that Norwegian forest governance primarily empowers actors that emphasize instrumental values followed by those who emphasize intrinsic values, whereas relational values tend to be restrained. • We examine how institutional arrangements and power dynamics define the values coming forward in Norwegian forest governance. • Local people rank ecosystem services embodying relational and intrinsic values highest. • Women and non-forest owners show higher appreciation for relational values than men and forest owners. • Gender, forest ownership, and size of forest property are important markers of power in Norwegian of forest governance. • Existing institutions primarily mobilize instrumental values, and there are few participatory decision-making arenas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ecosystem services literature rests on the premise that an increased understanding of ecosystems, ecosystem services and, in particular, the value of ecosystem services will feed to decision-making. Yet, there is little evidence for the assumed demand and applicability of valuation knowledge in real-life policy and decision-making processes, and the use of such knowledge has received little in-depth analytical attention. Motivated by these observations, we have conducted an empirical analysis of ecosystem service value knowledge use. Our analysis of policy actors' experiences and expectations regarding value knowledge in Finland's peatland policy draws on ten interviews with eleven policy actors. Focusing on the usefulness and uses of valuation knowledge, we analyze the ways in which values are framed and value knowledge is expected to influence the rights to use ecosystem services. Our analysis shows that policy actors expect a better understanding of ecosystem service values to support the consideration of benefits. Yet, what they view as crucial knowledge needs aligns with their sectoral or organizational position as well as the interests they represent. Hence, valuation does not provide a solution to distributional debates or conflicts over rights, but it can have an important function as the provider of background knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We analyze institutional challenges for a joint transboundary protected area regime. Employing the case of Mt Elgon in Uganda and Kenya, we use the concepts of fit and interplay to guide our examination in the challenges of the establishment of a transboundary protected area management (TBPAM) regime. Although transboundary regimes are thought to provide better fit for the resources, fitness is a contested phenomenon. The findings are critical to the perceived benefits of the TBPAM strategy in the form of one, fully integrated regional regime. We reveal how such a regime will be seriously constrained by the interplay of complex institutional factors. We moreover find evidence that TBPAM entails a reintroduction of the old top-down conservation paradigms, counteracting the community conservation attempts. Therefore, policy makers are encouraged to approach critically the daunting exercise of a continuum of TBPAM governance toward fully integrated management within a joint TBPAM regime. Instead, the focus should be on identifying the issues that are truly transboundary in nature and construct governance structures that directly address these. In this paper we suggest that policy makers carry out a clear institutional analysis: disaggregate the real transboundary objects, identify common interests, and look for appropriate content and levels of cooperation. It is no panacea to establish an integrated transboundary regime, even if two protected areas happen to be adjoining. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article critically analyzes institutional change as a consequence of humanitarian intervention in the tsunami-affected Nicobar Islands in India. It shows that the state and aid agencies distributed resources on the basis of formal rules and norms different from those observed by the Nicobarese. This has created social upheaval by diminishing the stature of the joint family system and imparting greater agency to political representatives. Written communication has overridden the sanctity of the spoken word. Younger, educated Nicobarese, especially men, have been privileged by the new institutional arrangements and are active participants in social change. Thus, humanitarian intervention has resulted in shifting relationships of power and equity. Moreover, the ecological consequences appear to be unsustainable. The article suggests the need for enhanced sensitivity to cultural specificities and inherent human capacity in designing humanitarian intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]