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Sauropod dinosaurs are well known for their massive sizes and long necks and tails. Among sauropods, flagellicaudatan dinosaurs are characterized by extreme tail elongation, which has led to hypotheses regarding tail function, often compared to a whip. Here, we analyse the dynamics of motion of a 3D model of an apatosaurine flagellicaudatan tail using multibody simulation and quantify the stress-bearing capabilities of the associated soft tissues. Such an elongated and slender structure would allow achieving tip velocities in the order of 30 m/s, or 100 km/h, far slower than the speed of sound, due to the combined effect of friction of the musculature and articulations, as well as aerodynamic drag. The material properties of the skin, tendons, and ligaments also support such evidence, proving that in life, the tail would not have withstood the stresses imposed by travelling at the speed of sound, irrespective of the conjectural 'popper', a hypothetical soft tissue structure analogue to the terminal portion of a bullwhip able to surpass the speed of sound. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Generally, the species is considered to be the only naturally occurring taxon. However, species recognized and defined using different species delimitation criteria cannot readily be compared, impacting studies of biodiversity through Deep Time. This comparability issue is particularly marked when comparing extant with extinct species because the only available data for species delimitation in fossils are derived from their preserved morphology, which is generally restricted to osteology in vertebrates. Here, we quantify intraspecific, intrageneric, and intergeneric osteological variability in extant species of lacertid lizards using pairwise dissimilarity scores based on a data set of 253 discrete osteological characters for 99 specimens referred to 24 species. Variability is always significantly lower intraspecifically than between individuals belonging to distinct species of a single genus, which is in turn significantly lower than intergeneric variability. Average values of intraspecific variability and associated standard deviations are consistent (with few exceptions), with an overall average within a species of 0.208 changes per character scored. Application of the same methods to six extinct lacertid species (represented by 40 fossil specimens) revealed that intraspecific osteological variability is inconsistent, which can at least in part be attributed to different researchers having unequal expectations of the skeletal dissimilarity within species units. Such a divergent interpretation of intraspecific and interspecific variability among extant and extinct species reinforces the incomparability of the species unit. Lacertidae is an example where extant species recognized and defined based on a number of delimitation criteria show comparable and consistent intraspecific osteological variability. Here, as well as in equivalent cases, application of those skeletal dissimilarity values to paleontological species delimitation potentially provides a way to ameliorate inconsistencies created by the use of morphology to define species. [Intraspecific variation; Lacertidae; morphological disparity; osteology; species delimitation; taxonomic bias.] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several extinct species are known from the family Lacertidae, but due to poor preservation, many of them are based on single bones. Here, we compare phylogenetic signals of disarticulated premaxillae, maxillae and dentaries of lacertids from four French Oligocene localities (Coderet, La Colombière, Roqueprune 2, Mas de Got B). We identified five morphotypes among the premaxillae, six among the maxillae, and ten among the dentaries. These morphotypes were scored as individual taxa per locality into three separate character matrices with the same 246 characters, one matrix for each jaw element. Subsequently, the phylogenetic position of the morphotypes was tested using maximum parsimony. The consensus trees with the dentaries and the maxillae found a large polytomy including all taxa except the outgroup taxon Gekko gecko. The consensus tree with the premaxillae showed a considerably more resolved topology but found all morphotype taxa outside Lacertidae. In a second step, we compared the constitution of our three datasets and the morphotype taxa. Our results suggest that a combination of convergent characters and missing data led to the outgroup position of the premaxilla morphotype taxa. The poor resolution of the maxillae strict consensus is likely a consequence of their fragmentary preservation. For the dentaries, a high amount of missing data due to the high number of morphotype taxa most likely caused the poor tree resolution. Indeed, tests with fewer morphotypes found tree resolutions comparable to the premaxilla data. When linking the morphotypes, five possible lacertid "species" were found. Comparison with already known French Oligocene lacertid species points to a slightly higher species richness of Lacertidae at that time than known before. Reliable species classification based on phylogeny only seems possible when combining the jaw elements or in association with other cranial and postcranial material, putting some doubt on species identifications based on single bones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 1934, Barnum Brown of the American Museum of Natural History in New York (AMNH) led a large-scale dinosaur excavation in northern Wyoming, where he had found bones two years earlier. Initially, Brown expected to excavate two skeletons of sauropod dinosaurs, but soon after opening the quarry, the team realized that the site far exceeded their expectations: in the end, they unearthed approximately 3000 bones within six months and sent approximately 144 crates back to the AMNH. Due to the enormous number of bones, the site became world famous as a dinosaur graveyard, and media from all over the United States and abroad reported on the expedition. Soon after, however, the collection shifted away from a curatorial focus. What followed was a history of neglect: inappropriate storage conditions, water and fire damage, collapsing wooden boxes, and deteriorating plaster jackets. Relocation and further excavation of the quarry by the Sauriermuseum Aathal (Switzerland; SMA) from 1989 to 1991 confirmed earlier finds of skin impressions and resulted in the recognition of a novel diplodocid sauropod: Kaatedocus siberi. Given that the amount of bones found by the AMNH far exceeded those found by the SMA, a new project was started in 2017 to reassess the state and scientific value of the historic collections at AMNH. Although most of the bones are heavily fragmented, preliminary results show that overall preservation is still exceptional. Here, we reconstruct the history of the excavation, as well as past conservation and preparation procedures, and provide a report of current efforts to prepare, conserve, and catalog the material that has remained in storage since the 1930s. These current efforts show that historic collections, even after decades of neglect, can be of great and unexpected value, both for research and scientific outreach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation of the western United States preserves one of the best-known Mesozoic paleoecosystems worldwide. The formation crops out over an area from New Mexico and Oklahoma to Montana and Utah and encompasses a time span of approximately eight million years. Recent studies indicate a high diversity of gigantic, herbivorous sauropod dinosaurs, but the geographic and temporal distributions of species or even genera of these animals remain poorly understood. In particular, sauropod specimens from northern outcrops of the formation have rarely been studied in detail, and temporal relationships among sites are imprecise. Here, we reassess the taxonomic diversity of the sauropods from a historic Carnegie Museum locality in northern Wyoming. Previous referrals of material to the well-known diplodocid genera Apatosaurus and Diplodocus cannot be confidently confirmed; instead, all these specimens more likely represent elements from the recently recognized Galeamopus. Specimens previously assigned to Camarasaurus and Haplocanthosaurus could not be referred to these genera based on apomorphies, due to a lack of detailed knowledge concerning the genus- and species-level taxonomy of these sauropods. Our findings imply that many referrals of incomplete diplodocid skeletons to Apatosaurus and Diplodocus must be reassessed. These reassessments are particularly important with regard to specimens from northern localities of the Morrison Formation, as it is becoming increasingly evident that diplodocids from this area were distinct from better-known, more southerly taxa. This geographic segregation does not seem to apply to nondiplodocid sauropods; however, these taxa are also in need of systematic revision, which may reveal species-level patterns similar to those observed in Diplodocidae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Timon is a large-sized lacertid lizard genus with a peculiar current distribution around the Mediterranean. Six species form three distinct clades, which are geographically separated from each other. These clades inhabit the Iberian Peninsula, France and the north-western coast of Italy (Timon lepidus and T. nevadensis); the North-African part of the western Mediterranean Basin (T. pater and T. tangitanus); and the Middle East, without connection to the Mediterranean (Turkey, Syria, Iraq and Iran; T. kurdistanicus and T. princeps). Fossil occurrences are known, but are mostly restricted to the current geographical range, with some possible exceptions from Corsica, Sicily, Malta and south-eastern Italy, none of which has yet been assessed in detail. Herein, we describe fossils from the Pleistocene of Monte Tuttavista (Sardinia, Italy), which have previously been attributed to Lacerta sp. Inclusion of these fossils into a phylogenetic matrix of lacertid lizards shows that they are instead referable to Timon. It represents the first fossil occurrence of this genus from Sardinia and confirms earlier reports of a wider distribution of the genus until the late Pleistocene. The local extinction of the genus on Sardinia seems to coincide with the appearance of predators specialized to capture small prey and with strong climatic fluctuations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diplodocid sauropods had a unique skull morphology, with posteriorly retracted nares, an elongated snout, and anteriorly restricted, peglike teeth. Because of the lack of extant analogs in skull structure and tooth morphology, understanding their feeding strategy and diet has been difficult. Furthermore, the general rarity of sauropod skulls and the fragility of their facial elements resulted in a restricted knowledge of cranial anatomy, in particular regarding the internal surface of the facial skull. Here, we describe in detail a well-preserved diplodocid skull visible in medial view. Diagnostic features recognized in other skulls observable in lateral view, such as the extended contribution of the jugal to the antorbital fenestra, are obliterated in medial view due to extensive overlapping joints between the maxilla, jugal, quadratojugal, and the lacrimal. These overlapping joints permitted limited anterior sliding movement of the snout, which likely served as a kind of "shock-absorbing" mechanism during feeding. Diplodocid skulls therefore seem to have evolved to alleviate stresses inflicted on the snout during backward movements of the head, as would be expected during branch-stripping or raking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Among dinosaurs, the pubis has convergently retroverted four times in Maniraptora (Theropoda) and once in Ornithischia. Although a clear correlation has not been demonstrated, it has been previously proposed that two traits were related to pubic retroversion: the reduced importance of cuirassal ventilation, and a herbivorous diet. Here, we analyse the possible influence of these traits on pubis orientation. Cuirassal ventilation was plesiomorphically present as an accessory ventilation mechanism in Dinosauria and was powered by the M. ischiotruncus, which was probably connected to a propubic pelvis. Cuirassal ventilation was reduced in both Ornithischia and Maniraptora, some of which also evolved herbivory. According to our results, cuirassal ventilation is more strongly correlated with pubic orientation than herbivory. The retroversion of the pubis during the evolution of birds resulted in major changes in the musculature of the tail. These changes increased the efficiency of the pubocaudalis muscles, which enhanced the birds’ capability for take‐off from the ground. The release of the evolutionary constraint on pubic orientation through changes in the ventilatory system can therefore be considered to be an important step in bird evolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Phylogenetic analyses of morphological data are often characterized by missing data due to incomplete operational taxonomic units, as in fossils. This incomplete knowledge derives from various reasons, including—in the case of fossils—the numerous filters an organism has to pass through during taphonomy, fossilization, weathering and collecting. Whereas several methods have been proposed to address issues raised by the inclusion of incomplete terminal taxa, until recently no tool existed to easily quantify the amount of anatomical overlap within a particular clade. The Overlap Indices provide such values and might prove useful for comparative cladistics. We herein describe these new indices and their applications in detail and provide an example file for their calculation. A case study of diplodocid sauropod dinosaurs shows how the Overlap Indices will help to explore and quantify, which one of a number of conflicting tree topologies is supported by more anatomical traits, which skeletal regions are underrepresented in a particular phylogenetic matrix, and which taxon would improve character state score completeness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The capability of palaeontologists to identify fossil remains of a particular group of vertebrates strongly depends on the knowledge they have of its comparative osteology and on the actual presence of diagnostic differences among the considered taxa. This could have a relevant influence on the study of palaeodiversity, since a low recognisability causes a loss of data when trying to reconstruct the history of taxa that lived on Earth in the past. Currently, more than 6000 extant species of lizards and worm lizards are known, and new ones continue to be discovered, mainly based on molecular data. But are we able to recognise this high diversity using osteology? As far as European taxa are concerned, the osteological recognisability of non-snake squamates is very low: only 31% of the extant European taxa can be identified based on their skeletal morphology. This is balanced partially by the fact that most recognisable taxa have been actually recognised in the fossil record, suggesting that the lost data are mainly due to the scarce knowledge of the comparative osteology of these reptiles and less influenced by other biases, such as taphonomic or collection biases. In this context, specimen-level phylogenetic analysis has proved to be a useful tool to identify diagnostic combinations of osteological features, at least for lacertid species, as evidenced by a case study focused on the genus Lacerta. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several types of pathological bony overgrowth are known from various dinosaur taxa but, except for stress fractures, are rarely reported from appendicular elements. Herein we describe pathological manual and pedal phalanges of a camarasaurid sauropod (SMA 0002), which show features rarely recognised in non-avian dinosaurs. They include lateral osteophytes and smoothing of phalangeal articular surfaces, a deep pit, proximal enthesophytes in pedal unguals, distal overgrowth associated with a fracture, and a knob-like overgrowth lateral to the distal condyles of a pedal phalanx. Their causes were assessed by means of visual examination, CT scans, and bone histology, where possible. The lateral osteophytes are interpreted as symptoms of osteoarthritis. The ossified tendon insertions in the unguals are most probably the result of prolonged, heavy use of the pedal claws, possibly for scratch-digging. The distal overgrowth is interpreted to have developed due to changed stress regimes, and to be the cause for the fracture. The deep pit represents most likely a case of osteochondrosis, whereas the knob-like overgrowth likely represents a post-traumatic phenomenon not previously reported in dinosaurs. The study confirms that a rigorous assessment of pathologies can yield information about behaviour in long-extinct animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vertebral laminae are bony ridges or sheets that connect important morphological landmarks on the vertebrae, like diapophyses or zygapophyses. They usually exhibit some serial variation throughout the column. A consistent terminology facilitates the morphological description of this variation, and the recognition of patterns that could be taxonomically significant and could serve as phylogenetic characters. Such a terminology was designed for saurischian dinosaurs, and has also been applied to other members of Archosauriformes. Herein, this terminology is applied for the first time to lizards (Squamata). Probably due to their generally smaller size compared to saurischian dinosaurs, lizards have less developed vertebral laminae. Some laminae could not be recognized in this group and others require new names to account for differences in basic vertebral morphology. For instance, the fusion of diapophysis and parapophysis in lacertids into a structure called synapophysis necessitates the creation of the new term synapophyseal laminae for both diapophyseal and parapophyseal laminae. An assessment of occurrence and serial variation in a number of lacertid species shows that some laminae develop throughout ontogeny or only occur in large-sized species, whereas the distribution of other laminae might prove to be taxonomically significant in future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several types of pathological bony overgrowth are known from various dinosaur taxa but, except for stress fractures, are rarely reported from appendicular elements. Herein we describe pathological manual and pedal phalanges of a camarasaurid sauropod (SMA 0002), which show features rarely recognised in non-avian dinosaurs. They include lateral osteophytes and smoothing of phalangeal articular surfaces, a deep pit, proximal enthesophytes in pedal unguals, distal overgrowth associated with a fracture, and a knob-like overgrowth lateral to the distal condyles of a pedal phalanx. Their causes were assessed by means of visual examination, CT scans, and bone histology, where possible. The lateral osteophytes are interpreted as symptoms of osteoarthritis. The ossified tendon insertions in the unguals are most probably the result of prolonged, heavy use of the pedal claws, possibly for scratch-digging. The distal overgrowth is interpreted to have developed due to changed stress regimes, and to be the cause for the fracture. The deep pit represents most likely a case of osteochondrosis, whereas the knob-like overgrowth likely represents a post-traumatic phenomenon not previously reported in dinosaurs. The study confirms that a rigorous assessment of pathologies can yield information about behaviour in long-extinct animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several types of pathological bony overgrowth are known from various dinosaur taxa but, except for stress fractures, are rarely reported from appendicular elements. Herein we describe pathological manual and pedal phalanges of a camarasaurid sauropod (SMA 0002), which show features rarely recognised in non-avian dinosaurs. They include lateral osteophytes and smoothing of phalangeal articular surfaces, a deep pit, proximal enthesophytes in pedal unguals, distal overgrowth associated with a fracture, and a knob-like overgrowth lateral to the distal condyles of a pedal phalanx. Their causes were assessed by means of visual examination, CT scans, and bone histology, where possible. The lateral osteophytes are interpreted as symptoms of osteoarthritis. The ossified tendon insertions in the unguals are most probably the result of prolonged, heavy use of the pedal claws, possibly for scratch-digging. The distal overgrowth is interpreted to have developed due to changed stress regimes, and to be the cause for the fracture. The deep pit represents most likely a case of osteochondrosis, whereas the knob-like overgrowth likely represents a post-traumatic phenomenon not previously reported in dinosaurs. The study confirms that a rigorous assessment of pathologies can yield information about behaviour in long-extinct animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new taxon of diplodocid sauropod,Kaatedocus siberigen. et sp. nov., is recognized based on well-preserved cervical vertebrae and skull from the Morrison Formation (Kimmeridgian, Late Jurassic) of northern Wyoming, USA. A phylogenetic analysis places it inside Diplodocinae (Sauropoda: Flagellicaudata: Diplodocidae), as a sister taxon to a clade unitingTornieria africanaand the classical diplodocinesBarosaurus lentusandDiplodocus. The taxon is diagnosed by a unique combination of plesiomorphic and derived traits, as well as the following unambiguous autapomorphies within Diplodocidae: frontals separated anteriorly by a U-shaped notch; squamosals restricted to the post-orbital region; presence of a postparietal foramen; a narrow, sharp and distinct sagittal nuchal crest; the paired basal tuber with a straight anterior edge in ventral view; anterior end of the prezygapophyses of mid- and posterior cervical vertebrae is often an anterior extension of the pre-epipophysis, which projects considerably anterior to the articular facet; anterodorsal corner of the lateral side of the posterior cervical vertebrae marked by a rugose tuberosity; posterior margin of the prezygapophyseal articular facet of posterior cervical vertebrae bordered posteriorly by conspicuous transverse sulcus; posterior cervical neural spines parallel to converging. The inclusion ofK. siberiand several newly described characters into a previously published phylogenetic analysis recovers the new taxon as basal diplodocine, which concurs well with the low stratigraphical position of the holotype specimen.DinheirosaurusandSupersaurusnow represent the sister clade toApatosaurusand Diplodocinae and therefore the most basal diplodocid genera. The geographical location in the less known northern parts of the Morrison Fm., whereK. siberiwas found, corroborates previous hypotheses on faunal provinces within the formation. The probable subadult ontogenetic stage of the holotype specimen allows analysis of ontogenetic changes and their influence on diplodocid phylogeny. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Ossified gastralia, clavicles and sternal ribs are known in a variety of reptilians, including dinosaurs. In sauropods, however, the identity of these bones is controversial. The peculiar shapes of these bones complicate their identification, which led to various differing interpretations in the past. Here we describe different elements from the chest region of diplodocids, found near Shell, Wyoming, USA. Five morphotypes are easily distinguishable: (A) elongated, relatively stout, curved elements with a spatulate and a bifurcate end resemble much the previously reported sauropod clavicles, but might actually represent interclavicles; (B) short, L-shaped elements, mostly preserved as a symmetrical pair, probably are the real clavicles, as indicated by new findings in diplodocids; (C) slender, rod-like bones with rugose ends are highly similar to elements identified as sauropod sternal ribs; (D) curved bones with wide, probably medial ends constitute the fourth morphotype, herein interpreted as gastralia; and (E) irregularly shaped elements, often with extended rugosities, are included into the fifth morphotype, tentatively identified as sternal ribs and/or intercostal elements. To our knowledge, the bones previously interpreted as sauropod clavicles were always found as single bones, which sheds doubt on the validity of their identification. Various lines of evidence presented herein suggest they might actually be interclavicles - which are single elements. This would be the first definitive evidence of interclavicles in dinosauromorphs. Previously supposed interclavicles in the early sauropodomorph Massospondylus or the theropods Oviraptor and Velociraptor were later reinterpreted as clavicles or furculae. Independent from their identification, the existence of the reported bones has both phylogenetic and functional significance. Their presence in non-neosauropod Eusauropoda and Flagellicaudata and probable absence in rebbachisaurs and Titanosauriformes shows a clear character polarity. This implicates that the ossification of these bones can be considered plesiomorphic for Sauropoda. The proposed presence of interclavicles in sauropods may give further support to a recent study, which finds a homology of the avian furcula with the interclavicle to be equally parsimonious to the traditional theory that furcula were formed by the fusion of the clavicles. Functional implications are the stabilizing of the chest region, which coincides with the development of elongated cervical and caudal vertebral columns or the use of the tail as defensive weapon. The loss of ossified chest bones coincides with more widely spaced limbs, and the evolution of a wide-gauge locomotor style. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The construction of morphological character matrices is central to paleontological systematic study, which extracts paleontological information from fossils. Although the word information has been repeatedly mentioned in a wide array of paleontological systematic studies, its meaning has rarely been clarified nor specifically defined. It is important, however, to establish a standard to measure paleontological information because fossils are hardly complete, rendering the recognition of homologous and homoplastic structures difficult. Here, based on information theory, we show the deep connections between paleontological systematic study and communication system engineering. Information is defined as the decrease of uncertainty and it is the information in morphological characters that allows distinguishing operational taxonomic units (OTUs) and reconstructing evolutionary history. We propose that concepts in communication system engineering such as source coding and channel coding, correspond to the construction of diagnostic features and the entire character matrices in paleontological studies. The two coding strategies should be distinguished following typical communication system engineering, because they serve dual purposes. With character matrices from six different vertebrate groups, we analyzed their information properties including source entropy, mutual information, and channel capacity. Estimation of channel capacity shows character saturation of all matrices in transmitting paleontological information, indicating that, due to the presence of noise, oversampling characters not only increases the burden in character scoring, but also may decrease quality of matrices. We further test the use of information entropy, which measures how informative a variable is, as a character weighting criterion in parsimony‐based systematic studies. The results show high consistency with existing knowledge with both good resolution and interpretability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diplocynodon is a genus of basal alligatoroid comprising nine species, which spanned the late Palaeocene to middle Miocene of Europe. Despite recent revisions of most Diplocynodon species, one of the earliest named and most complete, Diplocynodon hantoniensis , has not been re-described for over 150 years. This species is known from the remains of numerous individuals from the Priabonian (late Eocene) Headon Hill Formation, which crops out at Hordle (Hordwell) Cliff in Hampshire, United Kingdom. Here we re-describe and diagnose Diplocynodon hantoniensis , providing the first detailed description of postcranial anatomy in Diplocynodon , and indeed any basal alligatoroid. Diplocynodon hantoniensis is diagnosed by four autapomorphies, including retention of the ectopterygoid–pterygoid flexure through ontogeny and a unique anterior process of the ectopterygoid adjacent to the posteriormost maxillary alveoli. A critical review of previously referred remains from elsewhere in Europe and the USA restricts Diplocynodon hantoniensis to the late Eocene of the UK. Through comparisons with extant crocodylians, the well-preserved postcranial skeleton enables the interpretation of numerous muscle attachments in the forelimbs and hindlimbs, providing a potentially rich source of character data for future phylogenetic analyses. Based on a comparison of humeral morphology between a large sample of crocodylian species, we outline two new morphological characters in the humerus. We include D. hantoniensis in a phylogenetic analysis, including all putative Diplocynodon species (103 taxa scored for 187 characters). We use four different character-weighting schemes: equal weighting, implied weighting (k value = 8) and extended implied weighting with k -values of 4 and 8. In general, these weighted analyses produce congruent results with the equal-weights analysis, and increase the resolution within Diplocynodon. We recover a monophyletic Diplocynodon in three of the four analyses. However, the fourth analysis, with the strongest downweighting of homoplastic characters and missing data (extended implied weighting with k = 4), recovers the Palaeocene Diplocynodon remensis outside Diplocynodon. Our comprehensive revision of one of the most completely known Diplocynodon species facilitates comparisons in the genus, as well as between other basal alligatoroids, and forms the basis for comparing postcranial anatomy in other fossil crocodylians. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Early Pleistocene site of Pietrafitta (central Italy) produced a rich vertebrate assemblage from the Late Villafranchian Land Mammal Age (late MN18). Geological and paleobotanical data from Pietrafitta indicate a lacustrine environment, surrounded by a humid deciduous broadleaved forest with a temperate climate. The vertebrate assemblage consists of at least 40 taxa including actinopterygians, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Here, we concentrate on the ichthyofaunal and herpetofaunal remains. The ichthyofauna includes Barbus Cuvier and Cloquet, 1816, Scardinius Bonaparte, 1837, aff. Squalius Cuvier, 1817, and Tinca Cuvier, 1817. The two anuran genera are the large-sized alytid frog Latonia Meyer, 1843 and the "green frog" Pelophylax Fitzinger, 1843. Three snake precloacal vertebrae were recognized, one attributed to Colubrines indet., another one to Natrix sp. Laurenti, 1768, and the largest and most complete vertebra is referred to the genus Vipera s.l. Laurenti, 1768 (cf. gr. "Oriental vipers"). The chelonian fossils, including some complete carapaces and plastrals, are attributed to the European pond turtle (Emys gr. Orbicularis Linnaeus, 1758) and Hermann's tortoise (Testudo hermanni Gmelin, 1789). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The dispersal of Crocodylus from Africa to Europe during the Miocene is not well understood. A small collection of cranial fragments and postcranial elements from the latest Miocene (6.2 Ma) site of Venta del Moro (Valencia, Spain) have previously been referred to Crocodylus cf. C. checchiai Maccagno, 1947 without accompanying descriptions. Here we describe and figure for the first time the crocodylian remains from Venta del Moro, which represent at least two individuals. Our comparisons indicate that this material clearly does not belong to Diplocynodon or Tomistoma—the only two other crocodylians described so far for the European late Miocene. The material is only tentatively referred to cf. Crocodylus sp. because the apomorphies of this genus are not preserved and a referral to C. checchiai cannot be supported on a morphological basis. However, it is likely that this late Miocene species, originally described from Libya (As Sahabi) and later identified also in Kenya, could have dispersed across the Mediterranean Basin multiple times and colonized the southern areas of Mediterranean Europe, as evidenced by several Crocodylus or Crocodylus-like remains described during the past years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Disarticulated remains of palaeobatrachids coming from the early Pleistocene (Gelasian) of Tegelen (The Netherlands) are here described and referred to the new species Palaeobatrachus eurydices. The new species has been included in the first comprehensive phylogenetic analysis considering all known species of the genus Palaeobatrachus and was found to be the sister taxon of the Oligocene/MioceneP. robustus. Palaeobatrachus eurydices +P. robustus form a clade with P. langhae, and this latter clade is sister to all other Palaeobatrachus species. Extreme adaptation to permanent life in water is evidenced inP. eurydicesby absence of the fossa cubitalis ventralis, and less developed olecranon on the radioulna. The water-rich and warm environment of Tegelen, indicated by other elements of the fauna such as beavers and the terrapin Mauremys, could have acted as a refugium for these water-dwelling anurans, which were thought to have disappeared from western Europe by the Miocene/Pliocene boundary. http://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:377FD70A-C201-4F95-BB30-BF5CE0D75A3F SUPPLEMENTAL DATA—Supplemental materials are available for this article for free atwww.tandfonline.com/UJVP Citation for this article: Villa, A., Z. Roček, E. Tschopp, L. W. van den Hoek Ostende, and M. Delfino. 2016.Palaeobatrachus eurydices, sp. nov. (Amphibia, Anura), the last western European palaeobatrachid. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. DOI: 10.1080/02724634.2016.1211664. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]