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Simple Summary: Lemurs are the most endangered group of primates. This preliminary study, based on data from the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria's Conservation Database, aimed to gain new insights into lemur conservation by evaluating the role played by projects led by European zoos in Madagascar. We found that these conservation initiatives may have a positive impact on wild lemur conservation. However, we believe that improved communication on conservation efforts provided for a broader range of lemur species for each project would be needed to further engage the general public. We examined wider society's ability to achieve biodiversity conservation and management targets using lemurs as a case study. We evaluated the impact on lemur conservation in situ by conservation initiatives led by European zoos in Madagascar exploring the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria's Conservation Database projects in terms of performed actions and achieved goals as well as communication to the public. We found that zoo-led conservation initiatives may have a positive impact on the ground and tend to achieve most conservation goals related to wild lemurs. However, we suggest that such conservation programmes should underline that they target further lemur species beyond the flagship charismatic species and that enhanced communication efforts would be beneficial to further raise public awareness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current research focuses on color preference between red and green stimuli and manual laterality in the emperor tamarin (Saguinus imperator). Trichromacy in primates has been related to a foraging advantage allowing frugivore primates to distinguish ripe from unripe fruits as well to socio‐sexual communication, as trichromats would be advantaged in recognizing social and sexual signals. As warm colors can affect the emotive state of the subjects, leading to the activation of one hemisphere over the other (e.g., right hemisphere), this could lead to behavioral lateralization. Thus, studying of hand preference may be relevant when testing color preference. Nine adult zoo emperor tamarins were involved and the study aimed to investigate the preference between red, green, and white cones as well as manual laterality. Tamarins were provided with pairs of red‐green, red‐white, and green‐white combinations of cones. Ten 30‐min sessions per combination were carried out and data on the interaction with one of the two cones of each apparatus were collected to assess subjects' color preference. We also recorded the hand used by each subject during the interaction with cones of different colors and the position of the apparatus in respect to the tamarin. We found no preferences for colored versus white cones. Similarly, we reported no group‐level preferences within different color combinations, whereas individual‐level preferences were found when considering all choices. Finally, we found that red cones elicited a left‐hand preference, suggesting a right‐hemisphere involvement in the presence of red cones. Although we do not have genetic data on trichromat and dichromat females, the tendency to use the left hand when interacting with red stimuli provides further evidence that warm colors can influence the emotive state of the perceiver, affecting their manual lateralization. Highlights: This study investigated color preference (red vs. green) and manual lateralization in zoo emperor tamarins (Saguinus imperator).We collected data on preference between different combinations of red, green, and white cones.We also recorded the hand used for interacting with cones of different color.We found no preference for red, green, and white devices. Individual‐level preferences in both color choice and hand use were found.Emperor tamarins were more left‐handed when interacting with red stimuli, suggesting emotional implications in the evolution of trichromacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The red panda is listed as "endangered" in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, due to the rapid population decline. Improving our knowledge on the red panda biology and ethology is necessary to enhance its husbandry and breeding in zoos. Behavioural variety, intended as the presence of a wide array of species-specific behaviour, has been considered a positive welfare index in zoo-housed animals. The aim of this study was to describe the behaviour of two pairs of zoo-housed red pandas, one of them with an offspring, and to investigate the behavioural variability using the Behavioural Variety Index (BVI). Behavioural data from two zoo-living male–female pairs were collected. A continuous focal animal sampling method was used to collect individual and social behaviours of the two pairs. Forty-eight 30 min sessions per subject were carried out. For the BVI, a list of species-specific behaviours previously reported in the red panda was prepared and compared with the behavioural repertoire of the subjects of the study. First, species-specific behaviours were recorded, and no abnormal behaviour was reported. The percentages of time spent on different activities (e.g., routine behaviours, exploratory/territorial behaviours, consumption behaviours, locomotive behaviours, social behaviours, maternal behaviours) were similar to time budgets reported in the red panda, with routine behaviours (resting, comfort and vigilance) being the most performed in both pairs. Moreover, the BVI suggested that each red panda performed on average 73% of the behaviours described in previous literature on this species. In conclusion, studying the behavioural variety of red pandas in zoos can be a useful tool for assessing their welfare as well as improving our knowledge on the behavioural repertoire of a species that is difficult to observe in the wild. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: The present paper is, to our knowledge, the first study that documents the behavioural responses of a group of wildcats kept in a controlled environment upon reunion with one previous member of the social group, a female wildcat, after a long time of separation. The reunion process was gradual, and CAP pheromones were used to minimise agonistic behaviour and to increase the probability of the acceptance of the female. In the first days after the reunion, there was an increase in species-specific behaviours and a reduction in aggressive interactions, but the aggression threshold appeared to lower again after one month, with the behavioural patterns of the late-reunion periods resembling those of the pre-reunion period. The union or reunion of animals with social groups can be a challenging situation, and little has been published about it when solitary species are concerned. Therefore, the aim of the present study was two-fold: (1) to advocate the need for systematic publications about strategies and the outcomes of reunion episodes in zoos and other facilities; and (2) to describe the behaviour of European wildcats (Felis silvestris silvestris) during one such episode, in which a female cat was reintroduced into her family social group using a gradual reunion procedure and cat appeasing pheromone (CAP) (spot-on). The study comprised three periods: the pre-reunion period (10 days, 20 sessions per wildcat), the post-reunion period (A, 5 days, 10 sessions per wildcat; B, 5 days, 10 sessions per wildcat) and the late-reunion period (5 days, 10 sessions per wildcat). In the post-reunion periods, all wildcats were together in the enclosure and were spotted with CAP pheromone. Per period, we collected data on individual and social behaviours. Individual behaviours, such as attention and self-grooming, were performed more in the pre-reunion than in the post-reunion period. Regarding social behaviours, we found that agonistic behaviours were performed more in the pre-reunion than in the post-reunion period. We observed behavioural changes over the course of the study, with behavioural patterns of the late-reunion periods resembling those of the pre-reunion period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although some studies investigated lateralization in reptiles, little research has been done on chelonians, focusing only on few behaviours such as righting response and escape preference. The aim of this study was to investigate lateralization in Aldabra giant tortoises (Aldabrachelys gigantea), focusing on asymmetrical positioning of the limbs and the head during resting behaviour, called sleep-like behaviour, involving both wild tortoises and individuals under human care. Subjects of the study were 67 adult Aldabra tortoises (54 free ranging on Curieuse, 13 under human care in Mahè Botanical Garden). For each tortoise observed during sleep-like behaviour, we recorded the position of the head (on the left, on the right or in line with the body midline) and we collected which forelimb and hindlimb were kept forward. Moreover, the number of subjects in which limbs were in a symmetrical position during the sleep-like behaviour was recorded. Based on our results, the number of tortoises with asymmetrical position of head and limb was higher (head: 63%; forelimbs: 88%; hindlimbs: 70%) than the number of tortoises with symmetrical position of the head and the limb. Regarding the head, throughout the subjects found with the asymmetrical position of the head during sleep-like behaviour, tortoises positioning the head on the right (42%) were more than those sleeping with the head on the left (21%). We found a relationship between the position of the forelimbs and hindlimbs during sleep-like behaviour. We reported no differences between Mahè (under human care) and Curieuse (wild) tortoises. Findings of this preliminary study underlined traces of group-level lateralization in head positioning during the sleep-like behaviour, possibly due to a left-eye/right-hemisphere involvement in anti-predatory responses and threatening stimuli as reported in reptiles and other vertebrates. This study aims at adding data on brain lateralization, often linked to lateralized behaviours, in reptiles, especially in chelonians. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many studies have highlighted evidence of lateralized behaviours in vertebrates and invertebrates, indicating that cerebral lateralization might not be uniquely human. Flamingos, as highly social species, might represent an interesting model in the study of lateralization, as this trait appears to be useful in gregarious animals. This study aims to investigate the presence of lateralized behaviours in zoo flamingos. The subjects of this study were 41 greater flamingos (Phoenicopterus roseus) and 29 Chilean flamingos (Phoenicopterus chilensis). Ten 20-minute observation sessions per subject were carried out, using focal animal sampling method. Bouts of side preferences were recorded for foraging, neck resting and preening. Moreover, bouts and duration of leg use for postural support during unipedal standing (leg stance) were also collected. Results highlighted a group-level right-side preference for foraging in the whole sample as well as within each species. Within greater flamingos, group-level right-side preferences were also reported for neck resting and leg stance. Differences between the two flocks were found, with greater flamingos displaying right preferences to a greater extent than Chilean flamingos. Males showed a more pronounced right preference than females for some categories. This study adds to previous literature highlighting the presence of group-level behavioural lateralization in flamingos. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The presence of group‐level handedness in non‐human primates remains controversial, as different studies have produced inconsistent results. Bimanual coordinated tasks have been found to elicit more pronounced hand preferences than simple unimanual tasks. The aim of this study was to examine manual lateralization in a group of 15 Barbary macaques during unimanual and bimanual tasks. In the unimanual task, data on simple food reaching in a foraging context were collected. During the bimanual task, macaques had to use one hand to hold a tube‐shaped apparatus while reaching with the other hand to retrieve the food inside it. Data on the hand use to retrieve food were collected. First, no significant group‐level hand preference was found for the unimanual task. However, a significant right hand bias was evident for the bimanual task. At the individual‐level, approximately 47% and 67% of the subjects had a significant hand preference in the unimanual and bimanual task respectively. The strength of the hand preference was greater in the bimanual than in the unimanual task. Findings of this study add Macaca sylvanus to the other species showing a right hand preference for coordinated bimanual tasks. Moreover, our results add to the growing body of evidence that bimanual tasks are more suitable and valid measures to investigate handedness in non‐human primates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tortoises perceive different colours and rely on the visual system to find food. However, few studies have considered colour preference in tortoises, especially in land species. The aim of this study is to investigate whether Aldabra giant tortoises ( Geochelone gigantea ) housed in Parco Natura Viva (VR), an Italian zoological garden, show a specific colour preference in their social context. The study was divided into two different periods in which red and yellow balls of the same size were scattered around in the outdoor enclosure. In the first period, pieces of carrots were placed behind each ball whereas in the second period, carrots were replaced with apples. Data on the frequencies of interaction with red and yellow balls were collected. First, tortoises interacted more with the balls when pieces of apples rather than carrots were hidden behind them. No significant group-level colour preference was found; however, individual-level variation in colour preference was reported. In addition, tortoises interacted significantly more with the yellow balls in the second than in the first period. Food typology seems therefore to play an important role in determining colour preference in chelonians. Research aimed at identifying individual differences in animal preferences might be valuable to improve captive animal husbandry (e.g.: development of enrichment programmes, diets and rewards). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Positive reinforcement training (PRT) is an established tool to facilitate animal husbandry, care and research in modern zoos, with potential positive implications for captive animal welfare. The study explored the role of an isolation PRT training programme on the well-being of ring-tailed lemurs ( Lemur catta ). Eleven subjects were observed during an isolation training protocol to induce the animals to enter an area (training area) calmly and retrieve rewards separated from group members. Duration of individual and social behaviours were collected over two different periods: the baseline period, before the beginning of the isolation training protocol and the training period, in which the collection of the data started at the end of the isolation training sessions. Additionally, behavioural data within the isolation training sessions (latency to enter the training area and retrieve the reward, display of stress-related behaviours) were recorded. Outside the training sessions, lemurs were out of sight significantly more in the baseline (Mean ± SD: 15.46 ± 5.20) than in the training (Mean ± SD: 4.36 ± 2.89) period. Social behaviour was performed significantly more in the training (Mean ± SD: 31.80 ± 12.34) than in the baseline (Mean ± SD: 12.52 ± 5.14) period; particularly, lemurs were in social contact significantly more in the training (Mean ± SD: 14.09 ± 6.00) than in the baseline period (Mean ± SD: 4.58 ± 2.73). Agonistic behaviours were performed significantly more in the baseline (Mean ± SD: 0.23 ± 0.15) than in the training (Mean ± SD: 0.07 ± 0.07) period. Within the training sessions, all the individuals entered the training area, were isolated from conspecifics, and retrieved the reward in 6 out of 9 sessions. Our findings show that, during the PRT period, lemurs displayed their natural behaviour in their everyday social life with significant increase of their affiliative behaviours and decrease of aggressive behaviours with benefits for their welfare status. Thus, lemurs were able to cope with the use of PRT to isolate each individual from its social group – a situation which, without training, might be very stressful. In conclusion, PRT may play a crucial role for the captive management of ring-tailed lemurs in captive facilities, including zoos. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assessing manual lateralization in non-human primates could be an optimal way to understand the adaptive value of this asymmetry in humans. Though many studies have investigated hand preferences in Old and New World monkeys and apes, fewer studies have considered manual lateralization in strepsirrhines, especially in experimental tasks. This study investigated hand preferences for a unimanual and a bimanual task of 17 captive ring-tailed lemurs ( Lemur catta), housed at Parco Natura Viva (VR), Italy. The effect of age on handedness has been also investigated. The lemurs were tested on a unimanual task, in which subjects were restricted to using one hand to retrieve the food inside an apparatus, and on a bimanual task, in which lemurs had to use one hand to keep the apparatus door open while reaching with the other hand to retrieve the food inside it. At the population-level, our results revealed an asymmetrical hand use distribution, in particular a bias toward a right hand preference for food reaching in both the unimanual and the bimanual tasks. Furthermore, at the individual-level, the bimanual task seems to elicit a greater hand preference than the unimanual task. Results of this study underline the importance of experimental tasks in determining hand preference in strepsirrhines. Furthermore, as bimanual tasks elicited a stronger degree of lateralization, they appear to be more suited to investigate manual laterality. Finally, findings from this study highlight the presence of a right hand preference in ring-tailed lemurs, shedding new light on the evolution of human right handedness. Am. J. Primatol. 78:851-860, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Handedness is the most evident behavioral asymmetry in humans: to study nonhuman primate hand preference could be optimal to investigate the evolutionary origin of handedness in our species, even though behavioral asymmetries are widespread among vertebrates. This study investigated hand preferences in 32 Old World monkeys and 26 great apes during 3 spontaneous actions, assessing the effect of taxonomic group, sex and age on primate handedness. Data about foraging, locomotion, and manipulation were collected and 50 bouts per behavioral category per subject were recorded. A bias toward right-hand use for starting locomotion was reported in both Old World monkeys and great apes. Furthermore, in the great apes, a group-level right-hand preference for manipulation was found. Results suggest an important role of factors such as posture and task complexity in the evolution of primate manual lateralization. The effect of taxonomic group, sex, and age on the hand preference are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the last decades, several studies on mammal motor lateralization have been carried out. However, data on marsupials are still underrepresented in the literature, despite their importance in tracing the evolution of motor laterality and its functional value. This study aimed at investigating motor lateralization in a sample of captive red-necked wallabies ( Macropus rufogriseus ), considering different daily unimanual activities and forelimb implication in postural support. Data on forelimb preference for food reaching, pulling food out of the mouth, self-scratching and starting locomotion from quadrupedal posture were collected; furthermore, to investigate the role of posture in determining the forelimb laterality of wallabies, data on forelimb use for postural support in tripedal stance were recorded. Our results revealed significant group-level left forelimb preferences for self-scratching and starting locomotion, as well as for providing postural support in tripedal stance. These results are discussed in the light of theories for a right hemisphere dominance for emotion processing and for postural influences on forelimb dominance throughout evolution. The reported left biases in forelimb use for different behaviours are in agreement with previous literature on macropods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Non-human primates represent models to understand the evolution of handedness in humans. Despite several researches have been investigating non-human primates handedness, few studies examined the relationship between target position, hand preference and task complexity. This study aimed at investigating macaque handedness in relation to target laterality and tastiness, as well as task complexity. Seven pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) were involved in three different “two alternative choice” tests: one low-level task and two high-level tasks (HLTs). During the first and the third tests macaques could select a preferred food and a non-preferred food, whereas by modifying the design of the second test, macaques were presented with no-difference alternative per trial. Furthermore, a simple-reaching test was administered to assess hand preference in a social context. Macaques showed hand preference at individual level both in simple and complex tasks, but not in the simple-reaching test. Moreover, target position seemed to affect hand preference in retrieving an object in the low-level task, but not in the HLT. Additionally, individual hand preference seemed to be affected from the tastiness of the item to be retrieved. The results suggest that both target laterality and individual motivation might influence hand preference of macaques, especially in simple tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Demonstrating the ability to 'copy' the behavior of others is an important aspect in determining whether social learning occurs and whether group level differences in a given behavior represent cultural differences or not. Understanding the occurrence of this process in its natural context is essential, but can be a daunting task in the wild. In order to test the social learning hypothesis for the acquisition of leaf swallowing (LS), a self-medicative behavior associated with the expulsion of parasites, we conducted semi-naturalistic experiments on two captive groups of parasite-free, naïve chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes). Individuals in the group were systematically provided appropriate stimuli (rough hispid leaves) identical to those used by chimpanzees in the wild. Individuals initially responded in a variety of ways, ranging from total aversion to normal chewing and swallowing. Over time, however, the two groups adopted different variants for inserting and folding the leaves in the mouth prior to swallowing them (complete and partial LS), following the specific method spontaneously displayed by the first and primary LS models in their respective groups. These variants were similar to LS displayed by chimpanzees in the wild. Using the option-bias method, we found evidence for social learning leading to group-level biased transmission and group-level stabilization of these two variants. This is the first report on two distinct cultural variants innovated in response to the introduction of natural stimuli that emerged and spread spontaneously and concurrently within two adjacent groups of socially housed primates. These observations support the assertion that LS may reflect a generalized propensity for ingesting rough hispid leaves, which can be socially induced and transmitted within a group. Ingesting an adequate number of these leaves induces increased gut motility, which is responsible for the subsequent expulsion of particular parasite species in the wild. Cultural transmission and maintenance of LS within a group and associative learning by the individual of the positive consequences of this otherwise non-nutritive mode of ingestion is proposed to be the pivotal link between this feeding propensity and its maintenance as a self-medicative behavior by great apes in the wild. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research is based on the idea that some prosimian species are good models in which to test certain postulates of the “postural origins” theory proposed by MacNeilage and colleagues [Behavioral and Brain Sciences 10:247–303, 1987] to explain the evolution of hand preference within the order Primates. We investigated manual laterality in 16 wild indris (eight males and eight females, living in four social groups) in their habitat, the Madagascan tropical rain forest. Data were collected on two spontaneous behaviors: “branch-reach,” an action that occurs during foraging, and “higher support,” a posture typical of clingers and leapers. A total of seven subjects were significantly lateralized for branch-reach (two showed a right preference, and five showed a left preference). Four subjects were significantly lateralized for higher support, and all of them showed a right-hand preference. Most of the indris we studied showed no preference. Our research suggests that indri are at “level 1 of laterality” in the classification framework proposed by McGrew and Marchant [Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 40:201–232, 1997]. The data presented here are not discordant with the “postural origins” theory, as lateralized subjects are often in the direction predicted by MacNeilage and colleagues [Behavioral and Brain Sciences 10:247–303, 1987], but they are the minority. Am. J. Primatol. 64:27–38, 2005. © 2005 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

FaIk's paper provides a nice cross-species perspective and an interesting background to formulate a theory of the evolution of human language. However the author does not provide a complete overview and analysis of the origins of language and takes for granted the "continuity hypothesis." Also her "infant parking theory" is questionable, as it is not well supported by observations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: Indri indri is a lemur of Madagascar which is critically endangered. The analysis of the microbial ecology of the intestine offers tools to improve conservation efforts. This study aimed to achieve a functional genomic analysis of three Lactiplantibacillus plantarum isolates from indris. Methods and results: Samples were obtained from 18 indri; 3 isolates of Lp. plantarum were obtained from two individuals. The three isolates were closely related to each other, with <10 single nucleotide polymorphisms, suggesting that the two individuals shared diet-associated microbes. The genomes of the three isolates were compared to 96 reference strains of Lp. plantarum. The three isolates of Lp. plantarum were not phenotypically resistant to antibiotics but shared all 17 genes related to antimicrobial resistance that are part of the core genome of Lp. plantarum. The genomes of the three indri isolates of Lp. plantarum also encoded for the 6 core genome genes coding for enzymes related to metabolism of hydroxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic acids. The phenotype for metabolism of hydroxycinnamic acids by indri isolates of Lp. plantarum matched the genotype. Conclusions: Multiple antimicrobial resistance genes and gene coding for metabolism of phenolic compounds were identified in the genomes of the indri isolates, suggesting that Lp. plantarum maintains antimicrobial resistance in defense of antimicrobial plant secondary pathogens and that their metabolism by intestinal bacteria aids digestion of plant material by primate hosts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Enrichment programmes are used to enhance the wellbeing of captive animals in zoos. We aimed to evaluate the effects of an enrichment programme, which included novel objects and scent stimuli, on one group of adult European wildcats hosted at Parco Natura Viva-Garda Zoological Park, Italy. We assessed the behavioural changes following the introduction of novel objects (blocks and rags) and scent (synthetic F3) via observations over four study periods (baseline, rags, F3 rags, blocks). Our results suggest that the enrichment programme did not substantively affect the behaviour of the zoo-housed wildcats but showed potential for both the introduction of novel manipulative objects (rags) and the administration of semiochemicals (F3). However, further work is needed to better assess the effects of the synthetic F3 on welfare in zoo-housed wildcats. Objects and semiochemicals may be used as enrichment in zoos. Domestic cats release Fraction 3 of Facial Pheromone (F3) by rubbing the muzzle to convey relational and territorial information. We aimed to evaluate whether and how the introduction of novel objects and scent stimuli could change the behaviour of one group (N = 5 subjects) of adult European wildcats (Felis silvestris silvestris) hosted at Parco Natura Viva-Garda Zoological Park, Italy. We assessed the behavioural changes following the introduction of novel objects (blocks and rags) and scent (synthetic F3) via observations over four experimental conditions (baseline, rags, F3 rags, blocks) using continuous focal animal sampling. Our results showed that no behavioural differences were found between the different conditions and the baseline, except for the condition with blocks when significantly less exploration was observed. Between conditions, wildcats performed significantly less individual explorative, affiliative, and agonistic behaviours, but more individual inactivity, when exposed to rags after F3 administration. Our findings suggest that the enrichment programme did not substantively affect the behaviour of the zoo-housed wildcats. However, the behavioural differences recorded between conditions suggest that, while novel objects introduced as visual stimuli (blocks) do not affect the wildcat behaviour, novel manipulative objects (rags) might impact their behaviour. Moreover, the changes in affiliative and agonistic behaviours displayed during the condition with exposure to rags sprayed with F3 suggest that such semiochemical could play an appeasement role within this study group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Imitation can be realized via two different routes: a direct route that translates visual input into motor output when gestures are meaningless or unknown, and a semantic route for known/meaningful gestures. Young infants show imitative behaviours compatible with the direct route, but little is known about the development of the semantic route, studied here for the first time. The present study examined preschool children (3–5 years of age) imitating gestures that could be transitive or intransitive, and meaningful or meaningless. Both routes for imitation were already present by three years of age, and children were more accurate at imitating meaningful-intransitive gestures than meaningless-intransitive ones; the reverse pattern was found for transitive gestures. Children preferred to use their dominant hand even if they had to anatomically imitate the model to do this, showing that a preference for specular imitation is not exclusive at these ages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The influence of the social environment on lateralized behaviors has now been investigated across a wide variety of animal species. New evidence suggests that the social environment can modulate behavior. Currently, there is a paucity of data relating to how primates navigate their environmental space, and investigations that consider the naturalistic context of the individual are few and fragmented. Moreover, there are competing theories about whether only the right or rather both cerebral hemispheres are involved in the processing of social stimuli, especially in emotion processing. Here we provide the first report of lateralized social behaviors elicited by great apes. We employed a continuous focal animal sampling method to record the spontaneous interactions of a captive zoo-living colony of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and a biological family group of peer-reared western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). We specifically focused on which side of the body (i.e., front, rear, left, right) the focal individual preferred to keep conspecifics. Utilizing a newly developed quantitative corpus-coding scheme, analysis revealed both chimpanzees and gorillas demonstrated a significant group-level preference for focal individuals to keep conspecifics positioned to the front of them compared with behind them. More interestingly, both groups also manifested a population-level bias to keep conspecifics on their left side compared with their right side. Our findings suggest a social processing dominance of the right hemisphere for context-specific social environments. Results are discussed in light of the evolutionary adaptive value of social stimulus as a triggering factor for the manifestation of group-level lateralized behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The evolution of the red-green visual subsystem in trichromatic primates has been linked to foraging advantages, specifically the detection of either ripe fruits or young leaves amid mature foliage, and to the intraspecific socio-sexual communication, namely the signal of the male rank, the mate choice and the reproductive strategies in females. New data should be added to the debate regarding the evolution of trichromatic color vision. Three catarrhine primates were observed to achieve this goal. The research was performed on captive groups of vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops), pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) housed at Parco Natura Viva-Garda Zoological Park (Italy). Using pairs of red-green bags containing the same hidden reward in comparable outdoor enclosures, we recorded the choices by observed individuals (n = 25) to investigate the role of color cues in choosing an object. The results indicate that chimpanzees used red color as cue to choose an object that contains food by showing a preference toward red objects; in contrast, vervet monkeys and pig-tailed macaques do not demonstrate a clear choice based on the color of the object. Our findings highlight the importance of the foraging hypothesis but not rule out the potential role of the intraspecific socio-sexual communication and may serve to add useful information to the debate regarding the adaptive value of the evolution of color vision in order to ill a phylogenetic gap from Old World monkeys to humans. Future studies should address the role of socio-sexual communication, such as the selection of the reproductive partner of both high genetic quality and with compatible genes, to determine how this influenced the evolution of color vision in non-human primates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An artificial fruit (AF) was used to test for social learning in pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) and adult humans (Homo sapiens). A monkey demonstrator opened the AF, showing alternative methods to 2 groups of cage mates. Video films of the monkey demonstrations were presented to adult humans. Compared with chimpanzees and children, the macaques watched the demonstrations significantly less and in a much more sporadic manner. They also produced only very weak and transitory evidence of social learning. In contrast, the adult humans performed as one might expect of optimum imitators, even producing evidence of components of a "ratchet effect." [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The possibility of linking physiology and observable behaviour is of great importance in gaining a better understanding of the dog''s reactions to environmental changes and potential stressors. Many studies of human–dog interactions explored the issues concerning attachment of people to their pets, whereas only few studies investigated the nature of the dog–human relationship or the dog''s level of attachment to its owner. The aim of this study was to investigate dog''s reactions to different emotional situations integrating physiological (heart rate) and behavioural measures. Seventeen adult dogs were tested in a ‘strange’ environment using a modified version of Ainsworth''s Strange Situation Test. The procedure consisted of an introductory episode followed by eight consecutive experimental episodes in which the dogs were placed in an unfamiliar environment, introduced to an adult stranger and subjected to separations from the owner. During each observational session the behaviour of each dog was videorecorded and heart rate was measured in order to allow a comparison between heart rate and behaviour. The level of activity of each dog in each experimental episode was assessed recording 12 different behavioural categories. The heart rate values during the first experimental episode were analysed to obtain a baseline for each subject and the dogs’ heart rate across episodes was assessed and compared to the baseline values. Furthermore, the effect of specific events (stranger''s entrance and owner''s return) on dogs’ heart rate was evaluated. The results of the present pilot study show that socioemotional conditions induce changes in both behaviour and heart rate in adult dogs and that these changes, especially those at the behavioural level, indicate emotional stress. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Ainsworth's 'strange situation' procedure was used to investigate the dog (Canis familiaris) - human relationship. 38 adult dog-owner pairs were observed in an unfamiliar room, introduced to a human stranger and subjected to four short episodes of separation. The procedure and behavioural analyses were as similar as possible to those used in studying human infants, except for the inclusion of an extra separation period in which the dogs were left alone in the room with articles of clothing belonging to the owner and stranger. A secure base effect was suggested by the fact that the dogs accepted to play with the stranger more in the presence of their owner than during his or her absence. They also explored more in the presence of their owner, but this appeared to be due to diminishing curiosity over time rather than a secure base effect. The dogs also exhibited a range of attachment behaviours, i.e. search and proximity seeking behaviours when separated from their owner, including following, scratching and jumping up on the door, remaining oriented to the door or the owner's empty chair and vocalising. They also greeted their owner more enthusiastically and for longer durations compared to the stranger. Finally, they contacted the owner's clothing more often and for longer durations compared to the stranger's clothing and spent more time next to the owner's chair when the owner's objects were present. Hence, the dogs' behaviour in the strange situation was very similar to that reported in human infants and chimpanzees. However, despite conducting detailed behavioural analyses, the order effects inherent in Ainsworth's procedure prevented the study from providing conclusive evidence that the dog-human bond constitutes an attachment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Here, we investigated the possible linkages among geophagy, soil characteristics, and gut mycobiome of indri (Indri indri), an endangered lemur species able to survive only in wild conditions. The soil eaten by indri resulted in enriched secondary oxide-hydroxides and clays, together with a high concentration of specific essential micronutrients. This could partially explain the role of the soil in detoxification and as a nutrient supply. Besides, we found that soil subject to geophagy and indris' faeces shared about 8.9% of the fungal OTUs. Also, several genera (e.g. Fusarium, Aspergillus and Penicillium) commonly associated with soil and plant material were found in both geophagic soil and indri samples. On the contrary, some taxa with pathogenic potentials, such as Cryptococcus, were only found in indri samples. Further, many saprotrophs and plant-associated fungal taxa were detected in the indri faeces. These fungal species may be involved in the digestion processes of leaves and could have a beneficial role in their health. In conclusion, we found an intimate connection between gut mycobiome and soil, highlighting, once again, the potential consequent impacts on the wider habitat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brain hemispheres have different functions and control the movements of the contralateral side of the body. One of these functions is processing emotions. The right hemisphere hypothesis suggests that the right hemisphere of the brain is responsible for emotional processing, so the left side of the body is activated in emotive contexts such as social interactions. In contrast, the valence hypothesis proposes that both hemispheres are involved in emotional processing, with the left hemisphere processing positive emotions and the right hemisphere negative emotions. We investigated whether and how interaction with inanimate and animate targets affected manual laterality in 12 zoo-housed Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus). We focused on the direction and the strength of hand preference and tested the effect of social rank on lateralization. We used continuous focal animal sampling to record bouts of hand preference when interacting with inanimate targets (fourteen 15-min samples) and animate targets (during social and self-directed behaviors, fourteen 2-h morning samples and 14 90-min afternoon samples) and recorded social interactions to measure rank. At the individual level, six of nine lateralized macaques were significantly right-handed when interacting with inanimate targets, whereas only three subjects showed a significant (right) lateralization when interacting with animate targets. Thus, inanimate targets seem to elicit manual laterality to a greater extent than animate targets. At the group level, we found no hand preference for actions directed toward inanimate or animate targets in general but we found a right-hand bias for affiliative behaviors. There was no effect of social rank on lateralization. Despite the limitations of a small sample size, our results suggest that both hemispheres influence hand preference during social interactions, supporting the valence hypothesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Behavioural and brain lateralization is widespread among non-human vertebrates. Motor lateralization has been investigated in the domestic dog, revealing that "pawedness" in this species seems to be sex and task related; however, few if any studies considered this asymmetry in wolves (Canis lupus). The aim of this study was to investigate the paw preference of seven wolves housed at Parco Natura Viva – Italy, during the interaction with food-related (FD) and olfactory (OLF) environmental enrichment devices. Eleven sessions were done (22 session in total) per condition (FD and OLF), and data about enrichment manipulation were collected. Most of the wolves manipulated the enrichment devices using one paw rather than both paws. At the individual level, all subjects were lateralized in paw use, six were right pawed, one was left pawed (the alpha male) regardless of the enrichment condition. The fact that one paw rather than both was frequently involved in manipulation could indicate a practical advantage for each individual in being lateralized in paw use. Despite the small sample size, our results provide interesting insights about lateralization in wolves, deserving further investigations. More studies are needed considering factors such as temperament, social rank and task complexity on canid motor lateralization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the great number of greater flamingos in captivity and their long life span, studying their behavior and welfare might be useful to improve the husbandry and breeding of this species in zoos. This study aimed to investigate factors affecting the breeding activity of captive greater flamingos (Phoenicopterus roseus) from 2012 to 2016. To estimate reproductive success, the number of pairs, eggs laid, and hatchlings were recorded. In addition, information on age, egg-laying history of the partners, and pair composition was collected. An increase in the number of pairs, eggs, and hatchlings was reported over the years. For each breeding season, there were pairs who laid more than once, especially in 2014 and 2015. Approximately 50% of pairs were monogamous between consecutive years; however, the percentage dropped gradually when comparing nonconsecutive years. Senescence and previous experience seemed to affect the reproductive success of the study flamingos. In conclusion, different factors can influence the reproduction of greater flamingos in zoos. All these factors are related to nonhuman animal welfare and need to be considered in developing and improving management practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Behavioral lateralization is common in animals and may be expressed at the individual- and at the population-level. The ontogenetic processes that control lateralization, however, are largely unknown. Well-established sex-dependence in androgen physiology and sex-dependent variation in lateralization have led to the hypothesis that testosterone (T) has organizational effects on lateralization. The effects of T exposure in early life on lateralization can be efficiently investigated by manipulating T levels in the cleidoic eggs of birds, because the embryo is isolated from maternal and sibling physiological interference, but this approach has been adopted very rarely. In the yellow-legged gull ( Larus michahellis ) we increased yolk T concentration within the physiological limits and tested the effects on the direction of lateralization in two functionally fundamental behaviors (begging for parental care and escape to cover) of molecularly sexed hatchlings. We also speculated that T may intervene in regulating consistency, rather than direction of lateralization, and therefore tested if T affected the ‘repeatability’ of lateral preference in consecutive behavioral trials. T treatment had no effect on the direction of lateralization, but enhanced the consistency of lateral preference in escape responses. Sex did not predict lateralization. Neither behavior was lateralized at the population-level. We therefore showed for the first time in any species an effect of egg T on consistency in lateralization. The implications of the effect of T for the evolution of trade-offs in maternal allocation of egg hormones, and the evolutionary interpretations of findings from our studies on lateralization among unmanipulated birds are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Behavioral lateralization at the population level is widespread across vertebrates, with considerable variation among species. However, evidence for individual-level and sex-dependent lateralization is sparse and inconsistent in fish, reptiles and birds. In addition, covariation of lateralization with position in the laying sequence, which is expected because the concentration of maternal egg hormones varies with laying order, has never been investigated. We analyzed lateralization of yellow-legged gull ( Larus michahellis ) chicks in reverting from supine to prone posture (‘RTP’ response) and in pecking at a dummy parental bill to solicit food provisioning (‘begging’ response). Chicks were lateralized both at the population and at the individual level in the RTP response and at the individual level in begging. Lateralization in the RTP was sex-dependent, as females showed a leftward preference. Lateralization in either motor task was not correlated within individuals. Lateralization did not differ among families, suggesting little additive genetic variation. Lateral preference in begging response varied according to laying order and matched variation in egg androgens concentration. Our study confirms previous findings on population-level lateralization and adds to the scant information on individual-level and heritable variation in lateralization in birds. Moreover, it hints at epigenetic components in lateralization depending on maternal effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We employed a bottom-up, quantitative method to investigate great ape handedness. Our previous investigation of gorillas ( Gorilla gorilla gorilla) demonstrated that contextual information influenced an individual's handedness toward target objects. Specifically, we found a significant right-hand bias for unimanual actions directed toward inanimate target objects but not for actions directed to animate target objects (Forrester et al. in Anim Cogn 14(6):903-907, ). Using the identical methodological technique, we investigated the spontaneous hand actions of nine captive chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes) during naturalistic, spontaneous behavior. We assessed both the frequencies and proportions of lateralized hand actions directed toward animate and inanimate targets employing focal follow video sampling. Like the gorillas, the chimpanzees demonstrated a right-handed bias for actions directed toward inanimate targets, but not toward animate targets. This pattern was evident at the group level and for the majority of subjects at the individual level. We postulate that a right-hand bias for only inanimate targets reflects the left hemisphere's dominant neural processing capabilities for objects that have functional properties (inanimate objects). We further speculate that a population-level right-hand bias is not a human-unique characteristic, but one that was inherited from a common human-ape ancestor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Four puzzle boxes were used to investigate localized stimulus enhancement and object movement reenactment (OMR) in 13 pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) and 30 human infants (Homo sapiens). Participants received contrasting demonstrations on each box. A circular lid was gripped by its rim or handle and swiveled to the left or right. A flap door was pushed or flipped. A sliding lid was pushed to the left or right. A pin bolt was demonstrated being pushed down, or the participants were left to solve the puzzle for themselves. Despite the fact that the monkeys watched the demonstrations about 60% of the time, only a weak OMR effect was found on the sliding lid. In contrast, the children watched significantly more, and there was clear evidence of socially mediated learning on all of the boxes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: The aim of the current study was to investigate the side (left or right) and sagittal preference (front or rear) of adult Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) during different types of social interactions. This study would improve our knowledge of the implication of emotions, through the investigation of behavioral lateralization, during social interactions and communication in macaques. No side preferences were found for any social interaction, suggesting that both hemispheres might be complemental and balance each other during intraspecific communication. For the sagittal preference, we found that macaques are kept in front rather than on the rear by close conspecifics, presumably due to the need to detect emotions and intentions of conspecifics during social interactions. Social laterality in non-human primates has started to attract attention in recent years. The positioning of individuals during social interactions could possibly suggest the nature of a relationship and the social ranking of the subjects involved. The subjects of the present study were 12 adult Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) housed in a zoological garden. We carried out fourteen 210-min video-recorded sessions and we used a focal animal sampling method to collect the position of the subjects during different social interactions. Data on the position of each macaque during three types of social interactions were collected (approach, proximity and affiliative contacts). Moreover, we focused on the outcomes of dyadic agonistic encounters to build the hierarchy of the colony. For each social interaction, two conditions were considered: the side preference (being kept on the left or on the right) and the sagittal preference (being kept in front or on the rear). Bouts of preference of different positions were collected for different social interactions (approach, proximity and contacts). No group-level side preferences were found for any social interaction, suggesting that both hemispheres might be complemental and balance each other during intraspecific communication. For the sagittal preference, we found a group-level bias for proximity, with macaques being kept in front rather than on the rear by close conspecifics. This might be due to the need to detect emotions and intentions of conspecifics. Moreover, high-ranking individuals are kept more frontally than on the rear when in proximity with other macaques. More studies are needed to better investigate social laterality, possibly distinguishing more categories of social interaction, and detecting other variables that might influence the positioning preferences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We investigated foot preference during string-pulling tasks in zoo macaws. • All macaws solved the string-pulling task with parallel strings. • Half of the macaws solved the string-pulling task with crossed strings. • The ability to solve a task and the lateralization of the individual seem to be linked. Cognitive abilities have been found to vary widely among parrots, within and between species, and seem to be related to motor lateralization. Indeed, as shown in Australian parrots and other species, lateralized psittacines perform better in cognitive tests than non-lateralized subjects. The aim of this study was to assess foot preference of seven macaws of three different species (red-and-green macaw, Ara chloropterus; blue-and-yellow macaw , A. ararauna, scarlet macaw, A. macao) during two string-pulling tasks of different complexity (Experiment 1: parallel string, Experiment 2: crossed strings). We also investigated the correlation between the foot preference and the performance of the macaws (as proportion of correct choices during the first pulling-up of the string of the apparatus). Per experiment and per subject, we did ten 1 -h sessions. We video-recorded all pulling-up events during the interaction with the apparatus and collected data from the videorecording using a continuous focal animal sampling. In both experiments, all macaws that interacted with the apparatus solved the tasks. The percentage of correct pulling-up responses ranged from 86 % to 100 % in Experiment 1 and from 40 % to 79 % in Experiment 2. We found foot preferences at the individual level in most of the macaws in both experiments, with the presence of right-footed, left-footed and ambi-preferent subjects. No group-level biases were found. No correlation between foot preference's indices and the percentage of correct choices emerged, suggesting that neither the direction nor the strength of lateralization seem to affect the performance of the subjects. However, as most of the macaws were lateralized and were able to solve the tasks, particularly in Experiment 1, there is a possible correlation with lateralization on the cognitive performance at individual level. Our results increase the knowledge of parrots' cognitive abilities. However, future studies should be done to increase the sample size and investigate the effect of age, sex and species on foot preference during specific tasks in macaws. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In his article Grush proposes a potentially useful framework for explaining motor control, imagery, and perception. In our commentary we will address two issues that the model does not seem to deal with appropriately: one concerns motor control, and the other, the visual and motor imagery domains. We will consider these two aspects in turn. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]