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Aims: Cramped and sealed sites common in compact city areas limit tree growth due to multiple physical restrictions and physiological stresses. Fast urbanization and densification have intensified the pressure on urban trees, demanding innovative methods and solutions. The subaerial tree-growth space attracts more attention, but the more intractable subterranean rootability constraints are often overlooked. They are expressed as external (macro-scale) soil-body volume and internal (micro-scale) soil-pore volume limitations. The double jeopardy of urban soil insularity acutely restricts root growth, root spread, tree health, and stability. Methods: Some novel solutions can be distilled from a comprehensive review of recent research findings to bring effective relief. Results: Pedestrians and vehicles can co-use the expanded soil area in dense urban areas. Various creative soil expansion techniques can allow tree roots to break out from conventional confined tree pits or tree strips. Subsurface connections can link a planting site to an adjacent one or a nearby green patch. The soil union could be realized by subsurface soil conduits (large-diameter buried pipes) or subsurface soil corridors covered by pier-supported paving. In the spirit of landscape altruism, soil sharing by neighbor trees optimizes using the scarce rootable soil resource. Internal soil volume expansion can be accompanied by high-quality soil mix and compaction-prevention measures to resolve porosity and rootability deficit. Conclusions: Urban tree managers can adopt out-of-the-box thinking in managing critical physical soil deficiencies. New research findings can more promptly inform policymakers and practitioners. Close interactions between science and practice can be proactively cultivated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Copernicus high-resolution layer imperviousness density (HRL IMD) for 2018 is a 10 m resolution raster showing the degree of soil sealing across Europe. The imperviousness gradation (0–100%) per pixel is determined by semi-automated classification of remote sensing imagery and based on calibrated NDVI. The product was assessed using a within-pixel point sample of ground truth examined on very high-resolution orthophoto for the section of the product covering Norway. The results show a high overall accuracy, due to the large tracts of natural surfaces correctly portrayed as permeable (0% imperviousness). The total sealed area in Norway is underestimated by approximately 33% by HRL IMD. Point sampling within pixels was found to be suitable for verification of remote sensing products where the measurement is a binomial proportion (e.g., soil sealing or canopy coverage) when high-resolution aerial imagery is available as ground truth. The method is, however, vulnerable to inaccuracies due to geometrical inconsistency, sampling errors and mistaken interpretation of the ground truth. Systematic sampling inside each pixel is easy to work with and is known to produce more accurate estimates than a simple random sample when spatial autocorrelation is present, but this improvement goes unnoticed unless the status and location of each sample point inside the pixel is recorded and an appropriate method is applied to estimate the within-pixel sampling accuracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the last 50 years there have been significant changes in land cover and land use, mainly those classified as artificial. This process, and its generalisation on a global scale, affect directly the basic functions of the soil, increasing other problems such as the loss of biodiversity, pollution, soil degradation, flooding and the effects of climate change. In the study area (Mazarrón, Region of Murcia) this problem is exemplary: the binomial urban development associated with the increase of beach tourism and intensive agriculture (under greenhouses) alter drastically the nature of the soil. The aim of this paper is twofold: to establish a supervised classification model that distinguishes, with an assumable error, the different classes established, highlighting those considered as sealed surfaces and, in addition, to make a comparison with the latest Corine Land Cover available information (2018). For this purpose, Sentinel 2A satellite images were selected and a maximum likelihood classification was performed. To validate the results, a confusion matrix was developed and an overall accuracy of 89% was obtained. Finally, a significantly underestimation by the Corine Land Cover of 75% of the sealed surfaces was observed, mainly due to its resolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this article is to analyse the relevance of the Royal Sites in Madrid and Segovia for the preservation of ecologically significant land around the palaces. The Royal Sites have been previously studied as part of the historical, artistic, and touristic heritage. However, their relevance in the preservation of natural heritage is less known. Given their high levels of protection, they act as a natural limit to urban spread, limiting soil sealing, and preserving the natural environment and biological diversity. Despite the demographic impact of Madrid, whose population has constantly grown over the last 50 years and produced an increasing sprawl of urban development, the Royal Sites have maintained their original landscape surfaces. Nevertheless, soil sealing has fragmented some of these territories and broken the connexion between them – as can be observed in satellite images. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study is to determine the percentage of urban sealing in different areas of the city of Bahía Blanca.In addition, its variations are analyzed considering certain urban indicators.To this end, land cover was classified by photointerpretation of satellite images in seven city areas.To this end, land cover was classified by photointerpretation of satellite images in seven city areas.The central area, where 94% of the digitized surface is sealed, stands out.In contrast, neighborhoods located in growth areas show less than a 50% of sealing.The existence of areas requiring urban treatment aimed at compensating for the loss of natural soil, thus preventing degradation of the urban environment, was noticeable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The issue of the urban soil survey, mapping and classifications (including urban soil diagnostics) seems to be not unified and standardized in the last time research. To contribute to the knowledge profound, we present procedure of the urban soil mapping which was based on the concept of pedo-urban complexes enabling to map urban soils in large or middle-sized scale. The mapping process includes the use of multiple background materials such as land cover/land use map, digital terrain model, satellite images, and soil survey results in the field. The example of this mapping method was demonstrated on Bratislava City in Slovak republic. The Slovak Morphogenetic Soil Classification system (MKSP 2014) and World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB 2015) was used for soil map unit's classification. Concept of the pedo-urban complex (PUC) includes several mapping attributes: urban land use, mapping of soil sealing, mapping of soil units (prevailingly soil association) as well as technogenic substrates. This basis was completed by soil texture, and level of environmental risk. PUC can create some spatial pattern depending on urban land use. Other soil areas are delineated as natural soil types variously influenced by geomorphology or pedology setting. The result of this process is creation of the soil map of Bratislava City which consists of 1,478 areas with soil units. Soil map could be applied in urban planning processes, as very detailed information provided within the map. Also it can be showed some gaps in mapping which should be the topic of further discussions and studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently, we can see a rapid decline of agricultural land with new uses, especially for construction purposes. This negative trend is evident across Europe, the Czech Republic has the fastest loss of land in the EU. One reason for the significant loss of agricultural land is building industrial zones, which utilises of greenfield areas, and their occupying new areas of agricultural land, often the most the most fertile. The analysis deals with the occupied area (the area of a particular industrial zone), the percentage utilisation of that industrial zone, the number of employees in the industrial zone, and the land quality expressed by means of the agricultural land protection class. The results of the analysis show the low usability of industrial zones, the large occupation of the agricultural land, and the low benefits to the Czech state and Czech citizens. The results also show the poor land use policy in relation to the soil protection. This work is followed by the project Sustainable management of natural resources with an emphasis on non-production and production ability of the soil, the results of which will be included in legislation and be binding for spatial planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fast urban sprawl in recent decades is causing significant environmental aggressions, inherent to development, which causes considerable personal and socioeconomic damages. Therefore, a greater integration of urban spaces with their naturalized environment should be planned, generating less ecological footprint and greater resilience to catastrophic natural phenomena, which will increase according to the different climate change scenarios. The objective of the study is to analyze the ecological fragmentation in Madrid (Spain), and to expose the connectivity measures at different scales. The methodology used is easily updatable, thanks to free access to the Sentinel satellite images and the cartographic sources. In 2018, the conurbation of Madrid already consumed on average 18.5% of their soils, with large spatial variations (13.33% to the N and 41.41% to the S), for which the mitigation measures proposed should also be different. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Soil sealing has a large impact on leaf functional trait variations of urban trees. • Trees planted in highly sealed soils have low specific leaf area and water content. • Optical traits explain the variations in functional traits due to soil sealing. • Temporal variations in leaf optical traits reveal tree phenology change. Abstract Urban trees play a key role in mitigating environmental problems in cities, but they often face harsh environmental conditions as they generally grow in sealed soils that have small rooting space and low water availability. In this context, rapid monitoring and assessment of tree health status is critical to maintain urban trees and secure the provisioning of urban ecosystem services. Across three European cities we selected 187 Tilia tomentosa trees growing under following planting conditions: (i) sealed , trees planted in small soil pits or strips surrounded by highly sealed surfaces (concrete, pavement or asphalt); and (ii) unsealed , trees planted in roomy soil surfaces (e.g. parks). We measured leaf reflectance and fluorescence and derived a set of optical traits from the measurements. We examined whether these non-destructively measured optical traits differ between planting conditions and whether they correlate with leaf functional traits, e.g. specific leaf area (SLA), leaf water content (LWC) and leaf water per area (LWA). Compared to the unsealed trees, sealed trees showed decreased SLA and LWC while increased LWA. Leaf optical traits differed between the unsealed and sealed trees. Highly sealed soils accelerated leaf senescence of the sealed trees compared to the unsealed trees, embodied in the temporal trend of optical traits. Sealed planting conditions negatively affect urban tree health status and phenology. These negative effects can be estimated by leaf optical traits, demonstrating the great potential of optical traits in assessing tree health status. Our findings provide insights into facilitating urban green management using optical traits and remote sensing data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Aversa plain is one of the most important agricultural areas of the Campania region, combining the presence of very fertile soils, sites of great archaeological interest and growing residential urbanization. In this paper, the soil map (1:50,000 scale) of the Aversa plain is presented. Three main land systems (coastal, alluvial and foothill plains) characterized by different soil types (Andosols, Phaeozems, Cambisols, Vertisols, Arenosols, Histosols, Luvisols) have been identified. However, Andosols are the most widespread soil type (9768 ha) and, along with part of the Phaeozems and Cambisols, represent the most fertile soils of the Aversa plain (first and second classes of the land capability classification). In order to evaluate recent intense soil sealing, its impact over land capability classes was assessed during the last 60 years. Results show that soil sealing in the Aversa plain affected mainly the most fertile first- and second-class soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil surface sealing is a major cause of decreased infiltration rates and increased surface runoff and erosion during a rainstorm. The objective of this paper is to quantify the effect of surface sealing on infiltration for 3 layered soils with different textures for the upper layer and investigate the capability of BEST procedure to catch the formation of the seal and related consequences on water infiltration. Rainfall experiments were carried out to induce the formation of the seal. Meanwhile, Beerkan infiltration runs were carried out pouring water at different distances from the soil surface (BEST-H versus BEST-L runs, with a High and Low water pouring heights, respectively) for the same type of layered soils. Then, we determined saturated soil hydraulic conductivity, K s , values from rainfall simulation and Beerkan infiltration experiments. Rainfall simulations carried out on soil layers having different depths allowed to demonstrate that infiltration processes were mainly driven by the seal and that K s estimates were representative of the seal. Mean K s values, estimated for the late-phase, ranged from 13.9 to 26.2 mm h −1 . Soil sealing induced an increase in soil bulk density by 38.7 to 42.1%, depending on the type of soil. Rainfall-deduced K s data were used as target values and compared with those estimated by the Beerkan runs. BEST-H runs proved more appropriate than BEST-L runs, those last triggering no seal formation. The predictive potential of the three BEST algorithms (BEST-slope, BEST-intercept and BEST-steady) to yield a proper K s estimate for the seal was also investigated. BEST-slope yielded negative K s values in 87% of the cases for BEST-H runs. Positive values were obtained in 100% of the cases with BEST-steady and BEST-intercept. However, poorer fits were obtained with the latter algorithm. The comparison of K s estimates with rainfall-deduced estimates allowed to identify BEST-steady algorithm with BEST-H run as the best combination. The method proposed in this study could be used to easily measure the seal's saturated hydraulic conductivity of an initially undisturbed bare soil directly impacted by water with minimal experimental efforts, using small volumes of water and easily transportable equipment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study compared the soil air composition in structural and conventional tree soils used for roadside plantings in the City of Helsinki, Finland. Soil air samples, collected from three depths during the growing seasons of 2012 and 2013, were analyzed for oxygen concentrations. The effect of soil cover on the soil-atmosphere gas flux was evaluated using relative gas diffusion coefficients as estimated from in situ measurements of CO2 fluxes and CO2 concentrations in soil air. The average O2 concentrations were higher in structural than in conventional soil air in both years. No obvious depth profile for the O2 concentration was detected. Structural soil aeration appears more favorable for root growth than aeration in conventional tree soil. However, soil aeration was also sufficient for healthy tree growth in the conventional soil. Cobblestone paving did not severely impair ground ventilation as compared with a cast-iron grate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Background: The highly consistent association of growing up on a farm with a reduced asthma risk has so far been attributed to direct farm exposure. In contrast, geographic determinants of the larger environment have never been assessed. In this study, the effects of proximity to farms and environmental variables in relation to the residential address on asthma and atopy were assessed. Methods: Addresses of 2265 children of the Bavarian arm of the GABRIELA study were converted into geocodes. Proximity to the nearest cow farm was calculated, and environmental characteristics were derived from satellite data or terrestrial monitoring. Bacterial diversity in mattress dust samples was assessed in 501 children by sequencing of the 16S rRNA amplicons. Logistic regression models were used to calculate associations between outcomes and exposure variables. Results: Asthma and atopy were inversely associated with the presence of a farm within a radius of maximum 100 m. The environmental variables greenness, tree cover, soil sealing, altitude, air pollution differed not only between farm and non‐farm children but also between farm children with and without another farm nearby. The latter distinction revealed strong associations with characteristics of traditional farms including a broader diversity of microbial exposure, which mainly contributed to the protective effect on asthma. In non‐farm children, the protective effect of a farm nearby was completely explained by consumption of farm milk. Conclusions: Clustering of farms within a neighborhood of 100 m is strongly associated with the protective effect on asthma and may represent a more traditional style of farming with broader microbial exposure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The expansion and urban densification in the last four decades have influenced the hydrological dynamics of urban watershed. The goal of this paper is to evaluate the intensification of this process, considering the changes in the coefficients of runoff in the face of precipitation scenarios, and its influence in the increase of the flow estimates of a watershed in Aparecida de Goiânia. The methodology consisted in the modeling of geoprocessing conditioners, involving precipitation, morphometric variables, coverage and use classes associated with soil types, and their effects on flow estimates in 1992, 2005 and 2016. The results indicate a close spatial-temporal correlation between urban densification and flow estimates, and in the basin exudative the maximum estimated flow increased from 16.2 in 1992 to about 46.8 m³/s in 2016. In the same period and in the whole basin the reduction of the concentration time was only 5.3 minutes in contrast to the considerable increase in the estimates of the flow velocity of the densely built areas. It is understood that the channels, herewith of the floodplain, functioned as reducing areas of the flow velocity enhanced by the increase and convergence of flow volumes from the higher areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The expansion and urban densification in the last four decades have influenced the hydrological dynamics of urban watershed. The goal of this paper is to evaluate the intensification of this process, considering the changes in the coefficients of runoff in the face of precipitation scenarios, and its influence in the increase of the flow estimates of a watershed in Aparecida de Goiânia. The methodology consisted in the modeling of geoprocessing conditioners, involving precipitation, morphometric variables, coverage and use classes associated with soil types, and their effects on flow estimates in 1992, 2005 and 2016. The results indicate a close spatial-temporal correlation between urban densification and flow estimates, and in the basin exudative the maximum estimated flow increased from 16.2 in 1992 to about 46.8 m³/s in 2016. In the same period and in the whole basin the reduction of the concentration time was only 5.3 minutes in contrast to the considerable increase in the estimates of the flow velocity of the densely built areas. It is understood that the channels, herewith of the floodplain, functioned as reducing areas of the flow velocity enhanced by the increase and convergence of flow volumes from the higher areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rapid and unplanned urban growth is responsible for the continuous conversion of green or generally natural spaces into artificial surfaces. The high degree of imperviousness modifies the urban microclimate and no studies have quantified its influence on the surface temperature (ST) nearby residential building. This topic represents the aim of this study carried out during summer in different urban zones (densely urbanized or park/rural areas) of Parma (Northern Italy). Daytime and nighttime ASTER images, the local urban cartography and the Italian imperviousness databases were used. A reproducible/replicable framework was implemented named "Building Thermal Functional Area" (BTFA) useful to lead building-proxy thermal analyses by using remote sensing data. For each residential building (n = 8898), the BTFA was assessed and the correspondent ASTER-LST value (ST_BTFA) and the imperviousness density were calculated. Both daytime and nighttime ST_BTFA significantly (p < 0.001) increased when high levels of imperviousness density surrounded the residential buildings. These relationships were mostly consistent during daytime and in densely urbanized areas. ST_BTFA differences between urban and park/rural areas were higher during nighttime (above 1 °C) than daytime (about 0.5 °C). These results could help to identify "urban thermal Hot-Spots" that would benefit most from mitigation actions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of ‘Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems’ (SuDS) has become a more sustainable alternative for managing stormwater, greatly reducing the effects of soil sealing. However, the lack of monitored projects is a barrier to their implementation, as the companies which manage sewer systems cannot quantify the impact and cost-efficiency of SuDS. This paper presents a project developed in the south of Spain, in which the hydrological performance of 3 types of permeable pavements has been analyzed. The efficiencies obtained (over 70%), are higher than or similar to the efficiencies of vegetated SuDS, demonstrating the capacity of these pavements for delaying catchment area response and slow flow velocities, reducing the operating costs of sewer systems and the flood risk, while also ensuring service conditions for cities and safety for pedestrian and vehicular circulation. This pilot site has generated results which are sufficiently consistent so as to be representative, and serve as a reference for other cities with a similar climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil sealing caused by urban growth leads to irreversible loss of soil ecosystem, which is rarely considered in urban development projects. Here the process of land consumption is analyzed using various sources of spatial representation that are treated with techniques of remote sensing and GIS. Nowadays new development projects in northern Madrid maintain a sealed soil about 41-64%, reducing the negative impacts of land sealing, although it is partly a response to the slowdown in construction during the crisis. This study aims to establish a working methodology to detect and measure soil loss in four PAUs in the Madrid Autonomous Community, as a working example at a local scale. The accessibility of databases, cartographic material and satellite images facilitates thematic mapping updates. The PAUs have been built on soils mainly corresponding to Luvisols with minor inclusions of Calcisols, Leptosols, Cambisols and Regosol. The low agrological capacity of these soils means that the soil sealing does not affect very fertile soils and therefore there is no significant agronomic loss. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The dispersion of built-up areas in peri-urban zones is considered an important, almost irreversible environmental threat, especially in coastal zones and islands. In this paper, we use soil sealing datasets derived from the European Environment Agency in order to estimate the expansion of built-up areas in the North and South Aegean islands in Greece. We examine these differences in relation to socio-economic features of the islands, especially tourism development, second home development and size and geographical position of the islands. The findings show divergent levels of soil sealing and a variety of spatial configurations, such as scattered growth of built-up land in coastal areas and peri-urban growth in rural areas. Higher cover of the total area of islands by sealed soil is related to tourism, but it seems that second homes are also an important driver, especially for smaller islands located relatively close to Athens. From a planning and management perspective, these findings can assist local or regional administration to assess the effectiveness of land use management plans and manage flows and processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the issue of agricultural soil sealing in the Dolní Věstonice and Modřice cadastres (South Moravian Region). Available data and map resources were used for this purpose (historical and up-to-date). Data was processed using manual digitalisation which helped to generate the needed map output. The decrease in area of agricultural land is analysed in individual periods starting in the year 1824 (source of data stable cadastre - the first half of the 19th century) until the present, and the sealing of different types of plots and soil kinds is assessed according to Evaluated Soil-Ecological Units (ESEU). In most cases, agricultural land sealing is associated with municipal expansion. To compare future development, potential (forthcoming) agricultural land sealing proposed within the valid landscape plans was also explored. Likewise, the overall price of sealed plots in both locations was calculated. The results show that there was a significant change in the use of both model territories between 1824 and the present. In Modřice, the area of the built-up area was changed from 16 ha (1824) to 409 ha (2016). The area of the site has expanded from 90% to agricultural land. The most significant change in this area is the development of builtup areas on agricultural land. In the model territory of Dolní Věstonice, the area of the built-up area increased from 16 ha (1824) to 48 ha (2016). The area of the site has expanded from 70% to agricultural land. Due to the construction of water reservoirs "Nové Mlýny", the area of water bodies increased by 569 ha (during the period 1824-2016). The water reservoirs occupy 65% of the cadastral area of Dolní Věstonice. The most significant change in landscape is the increase in water areas in Dolní Věstonice. Should this trend persist, an extensive reduction in agricultural soil and ensuing problems associated with sustainable agriculture, potentially also deficient food resources must be anticipated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Rainfall simulation allows testing soil changes after tillage. • Sorptivity decreased abruptly during post-tillage wetting and drying. • The decrease of saturated soil hydraulic conductivity was gradual. • Soil hydraulic characterization should not be limited to shortly after tillage. • The applied methodology seems appropriate to obtain hydrologically useful soil data. The changes in the soil hydrodynamic properties following soil tillage were investigated in rainfall simulation trials of intermittent rain at the Masse experimental station (Soil Erosion LABoratory, SERLAB) in central Italy. The experiments were designed to build a database as representative as possible of situations that may occur in nature. The data collected during the experiments were used to determine the saturated soil hydraulic conductivity, K s , the soil sorptivity at the antecedent soil–water matric potential Ψ i , S , and the flow-weighted mean pore size at Ψ i , λ m. It was also verified if the energy content of total rainfall after tillage explained the short-term temporal variability of K s. The results showed that during a sequence of rainfalls with wetting and drying cycles, there was a reduction of both S and K s by 2.9–3.1 and 1.4–2.2 times, respectively, depending on the plot. This decrease was abrupt for S and more gradual for K s. The analysis confirmed that K s decreased as the overall energy dissipated at the soil surface, E , increased. The range of possible K s values should be expected to become smaller as the dissipated rainfall energy after tillage increases (< 30 mm/h for E = 2 kJ/m2 and < 5 mm/h for E = 8 kJ/m2). For this reason, for the prediction and mathematical simulation of the rainfall-runoff transformation process, it is not advisable to limit the investigation to a single hydraulic characterization carried out immediately or shortly after tillage but data should be collected in a relatively long time span after tillage to properly characterize the soil in a condition favourable to surface runoff occurrence. For very high energy values, a recovery mechanism of the hydraulic properties of the altered/compacted layer was observed, but this behaviour should be confirmed by further investigations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work analyses soil loss over the last 150 years due to urban growth in one of the boroughs of highest environmental value around Madrid (Spain), i.e. Colmenar Viejo. The extent and patterns followed by urban extension are examined retrospectively using a present cartographic base layer. This evolutionary approach considering space and time has required a thorough compilation of cartographic sources that were created using classic topography, photogrammetry or remote sensing, some of which have been rarely used so far. These documents have been georeferenced, edited and handled using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing programs. Urban growth in Colmenar Viejo has been steady, has registered exponential increases (soil sealing affected 0.14% of the total municipal territory in 1861 and covers 2.64% nowadays) and has followed similar patterns to other Spanish towns influenced by metropolitan processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent decades, the region studied has experienced a significant urban expansion driven by the residential tourism. This resulted in a considerable environmental impact. To study this process and its impacts, we have analyzed the types of housing and population, urban surfaces digitized in three dates (1956, 1981 and 2011) and estimated the length and surface of the road network. The soil surface sealed by this type of use was evaluated in 16% of the total. Consequence of this is the increased frequency of flooding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The EKC hypothesis postulates that the relationship between economic growth and environmental deterioration is represented by an inverted U-shaped function. Its validity has been questioned from several perspectives and a need for public policies has been expressed. This paper uses a heuristic approach to analyze the relationship between per capita income and land consumption, as proxied by the number of Building Permits issued by public authorities. Using data from the Italian regions, we run a panel data regression model to test whether the EKC hypothesis holds. Results confute it, evidencing a U-shaped relationship. In the authors' opinion, the combined effect of market conditions, lifestyle evolution and institutional and political factors have produced an adverse effect on environment. On this basis, the paper claims that, when social and intergenerational aspects are involved, a balanced mix of market, policies and institutional architecture is needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• An efficient infiltration model with rapidly changing soil properties. • Adapt the current soil sealing modeling approach to sloping surfaces. • Seal formation is sensitive to rainfall, soil properties, and slope characteristics. The effect of rapidly changing soil properties during surface sealing is usually neglected in hillslope infiltration-runoff modeling practices despite its substantial impact. Based on the modified seal formation model and a two-layer infiltration-runoff model, a physics-based, computationally efficient modeling framework is developed to simulate the rainfall-infiltration-runoff process on slopes during seal formation. The framework considers the rapid variations of soil properties of the surface layer over time to reflect the soil sealing process, while accounting for the steepness of the slope. On sloping surfaces, the raindrop impact can both facilitate soil sealing via the normal component to the slope (dominant role) and reverse the process because of the tangential component (secondary role). The proposed solution approach needs no numerical grid adjustment to address the progressive sealing layer compaction. The model simulations accord well with the runoff experiments of different rainfall intensities and slope gradients. During seal formation, rainfall intensity and slope gradient can significantly affect the variation of soil hydraulic properties. The new approach is compared to the case where the seal layer formation is not accounted for and to the case where a completely formed seal is assumed at the rainfall onset. It is found that accounting for the sealing process affects the hydrological processes. Neglecting seal formation or assuming a completely formed seal layer would lead to large errors in both infiltration and runoff predictions. The proposed model can improve rainfall-infiltration-runoff models applicable for hillslopes subject to fast changing soil properties during surface sealing or rapid soil compaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In northeastern Brazil, the recharge of unconfined urban aquifers is substantially affected by high rates of soil sealing, as well as infiltration of sanitary effluents and water infiltration by water loss in the distribution network. This research aimed to evaluate the effects of variable recharge resulting from land use and occupation, considering the artificial recharge contributions within an unconfined urban aquifer. The methodology was based on developing numerical models with scenario analysis, individualizing areas with higher and lower population densities. The results demonstrate significant variations in the 15-m water table in several areas and inversions of the underground flow. The saturation reserves varied by about 10% between the current and critical scenarios. The results reported here may contribute to the management of shallow aquifers in similar scenarios, especially in terms of urbanization rates and efficiency in the water distribution and the sanitary effluent collection network. • The impacts of varying recharge rates compromise water availability in an unconfined urban aquifer. • Contributions from artificial recharge significantly change the water table levels of urban aquifers in northeastern Brazil. • Numerical models for estimating recharge in unconfined aquifers in urban areas. • Simulation results show changes in underground flow through changes in recharges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Density is among the most important descriptive as well as normative measures in urban research. While its basic concept is generally understandable, approaches towards the density measure are manifold, diverse and of multidimensional complexity. This evolves from differing thematic, spatial and calculative specifications. Consequently, applied density measures are often used in a subjective, non-transparent, unspecific and thus non-comparable manner. In this paper, we aim at a systematic deconstruction of the measure density. Varying thematic, spatial and calculative dimensions show significant influence on the measure. With both quantitative and qualitative techniques of evaluation, we assess the particular influences on the measure density. To do so, we reduce our experiment setting to a mere physical perspective; that is, the quantitative measures building density, degree of soil sealing, floor space density and, more specifically, the density of generic structural classes such as open spaces and highest built-up density areas. Using up-to-date geodata derived from remote sensing and volunteered geographic information, we build upon high-quality spatial information products such as 3-D city models. Exemplified for the comparison of two European megacities, namely Paris and London, we reveal and systemize necessary variables to be clearly defined for meaningful conclusions using the density measure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasing urbanization results in constant enlarging of the artificial area closed to water infiltration. In 2006-2008, the Soil Sealing Enhancement (SSE) database was the part of the GMES Fast Track Service on Land Monitoring. The accuracy of the final product set by the authors should reach at least 85%. Orthorectified high resolution aerial photos of Poland were used to develop reference data constituting 20,000 random samples around the country. In each sample, the points were classified into three possible surface classes: natural, artificial and semi-sealed. Comparison of reference data to original project statistics revealed the values of accuracy, commission and omission errors in the SSE dataset. Although, SSE accuracy in Poland fulfils the criteria set by SSE authors with overall accuracy of 99.5%, the individual analysis for each category reveals many weaknesses. Preliminary interpretation of mistakes leads to the conclusion that the spatial resolution of pictures used in the SSE project is insufficient. In several cases, validation proved that omission errors were made in relation to construction sites or recently constructed buildings. It should be stated that the accuracy of SSE product for Poland should be treated as the maximum value of impervious surfaces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to discuss the impact of land consumption, it is first necessary to localize and quantify the extent of sealed surfaces. Since 2010, the monitoring of land use structures and developments in Germany has been provided by the Monitor of Settlement and Open Space Development at the Leibniz Institute of Ecological Urban and Regional Development (IÖR; IÖR Monitor), a scientific service operated by the Leibniz Institute of Ecological Urban and Regional Development. The IÖR Monitor includes an indicator for soil sealing for the years 2006, 2009 and 2012. Using this new source of data, it is possible for the first time to conduct quantitative studies at the level of Germany's municipalities with the aim of documenting the extent of soil sealing as a form of spatial classification, as well as to investigate possible correlations with other influential factors. Here, we describe a comprehensive data inspection of soil sealing and potential influential factors. Structural interrelationships are identified under the application of classical and spatial regression methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study presents an estimate of how many hectares of soil will be removed from the farmland fund in the coming years around the biggest towns for non-agricultural use, such as for residential purposes and industrial zones. To estimate suburban area spreading, so called "buffers", i.e. packing zones around towns, were established. For the capital city of Prague the buffer width was set at 3 km, for regional towns at 2 km, and for district towns at 1 km. In this area, as well as on the territory (intravilan) of towns, the estimate of the future acreage removal of farmland for building purposes was calculated. The study also quantifies the changes in acreage of different soil types. The results show a significant decrease in acreage of the best quality soils, primarily because the largest towns are usually built on the best soils, and these towns are spreading much more than small towns. The results were statistically processed for (a) total, (b) each regional town, (c) each district town, and (d) total always separately for urban areas, for suburban areas (buffer zones), and for their combinations. Cambisols represent the soil group with the largest loss of land, followed by Luvisols and Chernosols. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urban areas are characterized by the very high degree of soil sealing and continuous built-up areas: Italy is one of the European countries with the highest artificial land cover rate, which causes a substantial spatial variation in the land surface temperature (LST), modifying the urban microclimate and contributing to the urban heat island effect. Nevertheless, quantitative data regarding the contribution of different densities of built-up surfaces in determining urban spatial LST changes is currently lacking in Italy. This study, which aimed to provide clear and quantitative city-specific information on annual and seasonal spatial LST modifications resulting from increased urban built-up coverage, was conducted generally throughout the whole year, and specifically in two different periods (cool/cold and warm/hot periods). Four cities (Milan, Rome, Bologna and Florence) were included in the study. The LST layer and the built-up-surface indicator were obtained via use of MODIS remote sensing data products (1 km) and a very high-resolution map (5 m) of built-up surfaces recently developed by the Italian National Institute for Environmental Protection and Research. The relationships between the dependent (mean daily, daytime and nighttime LST values) and independent (built-up surfaces) variables were investigated through linear regression analyses, and comprehensive built-up-surface-related LST maps were also developed. Statistically significant linear relationships (p < 0.001) between built-up surfaces and spatial LST variations were observed in all the cities studied, with a higher impact during the warm/hot period than in the cool/cold ones. Daytime and nighttime LST slope patterns depend on the city size and relative urban morphology. If implemented in the existing city plan, the urban maps of built-up-surface-related LST developed in this study might be able to support more sustainable urban land management practices by identifying the critical areas (Hot-Spots) that would benefit most from mitigation actions by local authorities, land-use decision makers, and urban planners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study analyzes the most suitable methods for detecting and measuring the soil sealing change caused by urban growth in the city of Madrid, Spain, using remote sensing techniques and GIS. Some irreversible, negative effects of soil sealing are impermeable ground and modified ecosystems (bio-geochemical cycle, water cycles, loss of biodiversity, etc.), which alter matter and energy flows and the ecological functions of the soil. Urban development has often been more concerned with viability and financial profit, to the detriment of the environment. Multi-temporal studies on the processes are assisted by several types of technologies providing geographical information, together with large cartography, photogrammetric and satellite databases. The best soil sealing detection is carried out based on principal component analysis of the images and the SAVI index. Supervised classifications show that from 1984 to 2013 soil sealing in the municipality of Madrid and its surroundings has risen from almost 15% to 24%, an increase of 9%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of the study was to determine role of soil sealing degree as the factor influencing soil contamination with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The study area included four sampling sites located within the administrative boundaries of the Toruń city, Poland. Sampling procedure involved preparing soil pits representing three examples of soil sealing at each site: non-sealed soil as a control one (I) and two degrees of soil sealing: semi-pervious surface (II) and totally impervious surface (III). Together with basic properties defined with standard procedures (particle size distribution, pH, LOI, content of carbonates) content of selected PAHs was determined by dichloromethane extraction using gas chromatography with mass spectrometric detection (GC-MS). Obtained results show that urban soils in the city of Toruń are contaminated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Soil sealing degree has a strong influence on the soil contamination with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Totally sealed soils are better preserved from atmospheric pollution including PAHs. Combustion of grass/wood/coal was the main source of determined PAHs content in examined soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The risks of accelerated runoff and its larger amounts brought by urbanisation include increased flood flows and pollution of downstream ecosystems. One of the most significant permanent effect of urban sprawl is soil sealing, which alters natural infiltration and runoff. In addition to imperviousness, the increased runoff from sealed and compacted surfaces results in increased sedimentation of stream ecosystems with contaminants. In most urban planning strategies, water related ecosystems have already become the fundamental components of the integrated urban landscape management, but still have been referred to as objects of protection or rehabilitation; not as management tools. This paper shows how soil sealing significantly affects urban environment and urban ecosystems health. It also demonstrates significant impacts of a city on downstream ecosystems. Data obtained from orthophotomap vectorization showed that the model urban catchment is relatively highly urbanized. 45% of model area is sealed mainly with buildings (40.41%), streets (31.01%), and parking lots (25.28%). Compared to natural basins, urban runoff is 64 times higher and carries a significant amount of pollutants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The agricultural land acreage in Central Europe, including the Czech Republic, rapidly decreases. This study presents the trends of agricultural land acreage reduction in the period 1966-2013, with respect to the 1990 milestone (political changes triggering a rapid loss of agricultural land for construction purposes). The analysis is based on the cadastral register data. Particularly serious is the rapid reduction of arable land - 25 ha per day. Furthermore, the actual built up area seems to be larger than show the records on the construction land in the cadastral register. There is an obvious discrepancy between the real state and the cadastral data, so the actual reduction of arable land in the Czech Republic may be even greater. Unfortunately, some municipalities responsible for the urban planning process are obviously not interested in land protection. Based on their quality, the Czech land protection law classifies the soils into 5 protection classes. The areas with the first and second class soils should not be used for construction purposes. However, the study revealed the law is frequently neglected from the part of municipalities and the areas of best quality soils have often been sealed by construction. The present study also attempted to enumerate the financial losses from crop production associated with the land take. The ineffective land protection is a very serious Europe-wide problem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In urban areas, the land surface is often covered with impervious layers increasing the potential for storm water flooding. Thus, runoff water management during intensive rain events has become an important issue to be tackled in fast-growing cities with increasingly large populations. This paper presents a LiDAR-aided qualitative methodology for defining areas prone to urban floods on a regional scale at the early phases of land use planning. The developed methodology is based on different datasets describing water infiltration capacity of the ground and tested in the city of Vantaa, Finland. The methodology utilizes datasets that are freely and easily available. The selected factors for analysis are soil permeability, soil sealing and surface topography. The presented approach gives tools for the preliminary identification of areas prone to storm water flooding. The developed analysis is user-friendly and quick to perform. It is a qualitative method that can support land use planners and other municipal and regional actors in the environmental and technical sectors in early-phase storm water flood management. The developed method is applicable for different planning scales. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Land use and cover change is the key factor affecting terrestrial carbon stocks and their dynamics not only in regional ecosystems but also in urbanized areas. Using the typical fast-growing city of Changzhou, China as a case study, this paper explored the relationships between terrestrial carbon stocks and land cover within an urbanized area. The main objectives were to assess variation in biomass and soil carbon stocks across terrestrial land covers with different intensities of urban development, and quantify spatial distribution and dynamic variation of terrestrial carbon stocks in response to urban land use and cover change. On the basis of accurate spatial datasets derived from a series of Landsat TM images during the years 1986 to 2011 and reliable estimates of urban biomass and soil carbon stocks using the InVEST model, our results showed that carbon stocks per unit area in terrestrial land covers decreased with increasing intensity of urban development. Urban land use and cover change and sealing of the soil surface created hotspots for losses in carbon stocks. Total carbon stocks in Changzhou decreased by about 30% during the past 25 years, representing a 1.5% average annual decrease. We suggested potential policy measures to mitigate negative effects of land use and cover change on carbon stocks in urbanized areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urban soil sealing has negative impacts on ecosystem services through the loss of urban green. Besides protecting urban green from further sealing by proper urban planning, the efficiency of soil sealing management depends on residents and practitioners. This paper investigates the efficiency of strategies motivating urban dwellers to contribute to a less-space-consumption behavior, to green their roofs or unseal unused paved areas through a survey conducted in Munich and Leipzig, Germany. Moreover, the paper identifies the supply and demand of ecosystem services and living quality aspects along a sealing gradient to prove how compact cities of high living quality should look. Results suggest that information plays a vital role for residents to reduce soil sealing and the supply of a high living quality, including sufficient recreational areas and reduction in motorized traffic promotes compact cities. To guarantee a high acceptance of residents towards compact cities, the paper suggests applying a sealing gradient taking into account the importance and satisfaction of built-up environment qualities based on the concept of ecosystem services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil consumption has become a very rapid and intensive process in many European countries, especially around large cities and important highways. The Prague periphery is not an exception. This paper analyses the extent and quality of consumed agricultural land and pattern of built-up areas in selected 22 cadastres in Prague periphery, by using historical maps and orthophotomaps, over four time horizons since the 19th century till 2010. The results show an extensive soil consumption. The average extent of built-up area increased from less than 1% to more than 13% per cadastre. This extensive development caused consumption of high quality soils and changed the pattern of built-up areas from more compact to less compact built-up areas. The average nearest neighbour distance between built-up patches has increased by more than 38%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil is a multifunctional, non-renewable natural resource for Europe as clearly expressed in the European Union (EU) Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection (COM (2006)231). Soil carries out multiple functions, including the support of food production. Urban development and its associated land take poses a major threat to soil and could have significant effects on agricultural production. This paper aims to evaluate the potential productivity losses in European agriculture due to land-take processes between 1990 and 2006. Agricultural land take was calculated using CORINE Land Cover maps of 1990, 2000 and 2006. For 21 of the 27 EU member states, agricultural land take was computed to be 752,973 ha for 1990–2000 and 436,095 ha for 2000–2006, representing 70.8% and 53.5%, respectively, of the total EU land take for these periods. The impact of this land take on the production capabilities of the agricultural sector for the period 1990–2006 for 19 of the 21 states was estimated to be equivalent to a loss of more than six million tonnes of wheat. The paper demonstrates that Europe's intense urbanisation has a direct impact on its capability to produce food. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil sealing and crusting are common, widespread processes in arid and semiarid soils that strongly affect runoff and erosion. In these soils, biological soil crusts (BSCs) are an essential surface component known to have an important role in water processes, and are also strong erosion protection agents. However, these crusts are also highly vulnerable to disturbances, which seriously affect their pedological and ecological roles. The aims of this study were to examine whether penetration resistance (PR) depends on BSC developmental stage and how removal of BSCs affects PR, under dry and wet soil conditions, and to analyse the relationship between PR and runoff and soil detachment in these soils. This research was conducted in two semiarid ecosystems representative of crusting processes in SE Spain (El Cautivo and Las Amoladeras, Almeria province). Four pairs of plots containing the main BSC types identified at both sites were selected and two treatments were considered, one in each plot in the pair: i) unaltered BSC and ii) BSC removal by scraping. Two intense rainfall simulation experiments were performed one after another in these plots. Runoff was measured during both, and water samples were collected for further determination of sediment yield. PR was measured in undisturbed BSC and scalped soil on dry soil prior to rainfall, on wet soil after the first and second rainfalls, and on dry soil seven months after BSC removal. Crust PR was higher at Las Amoladeras (3.13 ± 0.54 kg cm − 2 ) than at El Cautivo (1.52 ± 0.74 kg cm − 2 ) due to soil compaction from trampling by livestock in the former. PR varied with BSC development, with less developed cyanobacteria BSCs showing higher resistance (under dry and wet conditions) than more developed lichen BSCs. BSC removal was followed by the formation of a new seal (physical crust) upon raining, which however, did not result in increased PR. No significant relationship was found between PR and runoff, but there was a weak negative relationship between PR and soil detachment, because in BSCs, which had higher PRs, soil detachment rates were much lower than in recently scalped soils. Seven months after BSC removal, PR was significantly higher in scalped soils than for undisturbed BSCs. Our results show that PR was not a good indicator of hydrological and soil detachment response of BSCs or the soil sealing during rain immediately after BSC removal, but it was a good indicator of physical soil crust formation in scalped soils over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In western societies, the combined effects of climate warming, proceeding urbanization, and demographic change (e.g. population aging) increase the risk of city populations to be subjected to heat-related stress. To provide a scientific fundament for city-wide and spatially explicit adaptation planning, urban heat distribution and the population at risk need to be studied at small spatial scale. This study pursued to (a) investigate the land surface temperature (LST) distribution with regard to underlying effects of urban land use patterns, and to (b) identify areas at potential risk towards heat stress based on temperatures distribution and demographic vulnerability. We used LST maps as derived from two Landsat thermal satellite images for 10 pm and 10 am at two subsequent summer days and examined land use patterns through land use types, landscape metrics, and structural parameters via statistical and GIS analysis. Using linear regressions we obtained the degree of soil sealing to be the best predictor of LST-variations. However, under certain conditions, NDVI, distance to city center and floor area ratio (FAR) were better predictors. Water bodies had beneficial effects at 10 am and inverse effects at 10 pm, vice versa for arable land. The cooling effects of green areas were more significant in the morning than in the evening. Residential uses were among the most heat affected land use types at 10 pm, with different intensities according to their density level. For the identification of risk areas at the building scale, we introduced a matrix to combine simulated air temperature with population age and density. Results showed higher potential risk in central inner-city areas of dense residential uses, in particular for areas with high amounts of elderly residents, and for two major residential building types. The identified building blocks of specific heat stress risk provide urban planners with useful information to mitigate adverse effects caused by future heat waves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study illustrates a framework to evaluate soil consumption in Mediterranean regions experiencing rapid urban growth. Results indicate that high-quality soils more suitable for agriculture and forestry were mostly consumed by urbanization especially in flat areas. The consumption of these soils was not concentrated in the first observation period (1948-1975) corresponding to the development of compact settlements, but increased significantly in the last period (1975-2010) mainly characterized by discontinuous and low-density urban expansion. The study underlines the urgent need to inform development policies and urban planning with an in-depth quantification of the soil resource base lost by urbanization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil sealing has negative impacts on ecosystem services since urban green and soil get lost. Although there is political commitment to stop further sealing, no reversal of this trend can be observed in Europe. This paper raises the questions (1) which strategies can be regarded as being efficient toward ecologically sustainable management of urban soil sealing and (2) who has competences and should take responsibility to steer soil sealing? The analyses are conducted in Germany. The assessment of strategies is carried out using indicators as part of a content analysis. Legal-planning, informal-planning, economic-fiscal, co-operative, and informational strategies are analyzed. Results show that there is a sufficient basis of strategies to secure urban ecosystem services by protecting urban green and reducing urban gray where microclimate regulation is a main target. However, soil sealing management lacks a spatial strategically overview as well as the consideration of services provided by fertile soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Landsat TM images are used to define soil sealing in the Madrid Autonomous Region (Spain) between 1989 and 2010. The comparison of images within this time frame obtains an estimated loss of 42,800ha of agricultural land. Soil sealing mainly occurred in metropolitan areas as well as in the E, SW and NW of the capital. Landsat images overlaid on agrological classification maps and soil association maps show that the most significant losses correspond to agricultural classifications B and C and luvisols associated with cambisols, regosols, calcisols and fluvisols (WRBSR, 2007). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Solving the problem of publicly available census data disaggregation has preoccupied numerous researchers intensively. A noteworthy advance in the methodology was made thanks to the contemporary storage and presentation of spatial and socio-economic data in the GIS environment. It is also important that a large number of auxiliary databases (satellite images, theme layers pertaining to land use and land cover, etc.) are publicly available and are periodically supplemented at increasingly shorter time intervals. Soil sealing databases are another class of auxiliary databases that pertain to land areas which have, due to anthropogenic influences, become a water-impermeable layer and indicate the level of spatial development and spatial contents that correlate to the population distribution. The soil sealing database can be a useful tool for dasymetric mapping of population when combined with town planning documentation that describes land use and height of residential buildings. The results of such mapping can help monitor the spatio-temporal dynamics of population trends in periods between two censuses. This study presents a methodology in which a soil-sealing database is combined with auxiliary data in a test area covered by the Master Plan of the Belgrade City, with census data from the year 2002 and the results of the year 2011. The results of the model validation indicate application of the proposed methodology in highly urbanised areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]