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The extrinsic parasitics generally limit the modulation bandwidth of vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELs) for optical data links and interconnects. In this article, the extrinsic parasitics of 850-nm VCSELs are investigated by three different designs: oxide-only (design A), oxide-implant (design B), and oxide-implant with benzocyclobutene (BCB) (design C). The static and dynamic characteristics of all the designs with~7- $\mu \text{m}$ aperture are measured and compared. The maximum modulation bandwidth of design A is only about 12 GHz mainly limited by the large parasitic capacitances. With a proper proton implantation, a thick nonconducting layer is created inside the device with design B, which dramatically reduces the parasitic capacitances, and thus the bandwidth is increased to about 18 GHz. Based on design B, a 4- $\mu \text{m}$ -thick BCB layer with low dielectric constant is employed underneath the bond pad of design C to further reduce the pad capacitance, leading to the highest bandwidth about 24 GHz and the highest modulation current efficiency factor (MCEF) of 10.8 GHz/mA1/2. The microwave reflection coefficient (${S}_{{11}}$) parameters of the three designs are measured and compared. Results indicate that design C has the lowest parasitic capacitances and the highest modulation bandwidth, which is preferred for high-speed VCSELs to obtain good static and dynamic performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The existing Bessel beam generators generally require bulk optics counterparts and additional spatial laser sources, which adds complexity and bulkiness to the system. In this work, we propose Bessel beam devices with high compactness based on vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) and microdielectric axicons made by Si3N4. The transparent microaxicons are fabricated by one-step direct writing of focused ion beam (FIB) on the surface of meticulously designed top-emitting VCSELs. Zero- and first-order Bessel beams are obtained by engineering the lasing modes of the VCSELs through simply adjusting the oxide aperture diameter. Even if the VCSEL device works at multimode, Bessel beams can still be realized. This method provides great compatibility with different VCSEL configurations and emitting wavelengths. Such high-compactness devices may enable advanced research and applications relevant to Bessel beams. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Greater than 190 °C continuous wave (CW) lasing is achieved from 905 nm high-efficiency vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs). The maximum power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 46.3% for 4 μm VCSELs was demonstrated under the ambient temperature of 30 °C. The maximum PCE decreases only 10% of its value from 30 °C to 90 °C, showing stable high-temperature characteristics. The thermal resistances and active region temperatures of the device versus ambient temperature are determined experimentally. Besides, size-dependent thermal characteristics are also analyzed by characterizing the spectral and spatial properties of devices with various apertures. It is found that the higher the ambient temperature is, the less the number of high-order modes is, and single fundamental mode operation can be realized in 4 μm VCSELs even at a relatively high temperature of 190 °C. The design and characterization of these high-temperature VCSEL devices might present the basis for future laser radar application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The output characteristics of vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELs) arrays are largely influenced by temperature. We systematically studied thermal properties in 20-element oxide-confined VCSEL arrays via both theory and experiment. The output power, conversion efficiency, and threshold current dependent on ambient temperatures were measured. According to the relationship of wavelength shift and dissipated power, the device thermal resistance dependent on ambient temperature was obtained. The actual temperature in active region was successfully extracted. A 3-D heat diffusion model was established to simulate temperature distribution accurately. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dependence of beam quality on optical intensity asymmetry among elements in in-phase coherently coupled vertical cavity surface emitting lasers array is analyzed using the finite-difference time domain solutions software. The analysis results reveal that the coupling efficiency of in-phased array decreases and the divergence increases as the level of optical intensity asymmetry increases. Furthermore, an addressable separated-contact three-element triangular in-phased array is fabricated and measured to verify the analysis. The array exhibits a relatively high of coupling efficiency of 24% and a near-diffraction-limit divergence of 3.2° (1.12 times of the diffraction limit, D.L.) when the optical intensity of each element is adjusted to be uniform. By degrading the optical intensity symmetry, the coupling efficiency decreases to 17.07% and the divergence increases to 4.03° ( $1.37\times \text {D.L}$.). After that, a much larger $10\times 10$ array exhibiting in-phase characteristics is produced and its beam quality and optical uniformity are measured and discussed. Analysis and experiment results demonstrate that symmetric optical intensity among elements is essential for in-phased array to achieve high beam quality. Employing separate contacts in the array is proved an effective way to obtain uniform optical intensity and achieve high beam quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• VCSEL arrays with configurable beam emissions can be realized by engineering their phase distribution. • Accurate far-field intensity distribution model of the array can be established based on Fraunhofer diffraction theory. • The shape of the beam can be manipulated by adjusting the ratio of the horizontal dimension to vertical dimension of the arrays. An accurate far-field intensity distribution model of coherent VCSEL array is established based on Fraunhofer diffraction theory, of which the calculated far-field pattern can be configured by tuning the phase distribution of the array. In experiment, configurable beam emissions are achieved in two-dimensional coherent square 2 × 2 VCSEL arrays and triangular 3-element VCSEL arrays by engineering the phase distribution of the array through simply constructing the array structure. Single-lobe beam, double-lobe beam, and four-lobe beam are obtained in these arrays. Besides, beam shape manipulation is also realized by adjusting the ratio of horizontal dimension to vertical dimension of the array. The experimental results are in good agreement with the calculated results from the established theoretical model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We have investigated the dry etching of Al 0.12 GaAs/Al 0.9 GaAs Distributed Bragg Reflectors (DBRs) using photoresist mask in Inductively Coupled Plasma system with Cl 2 /BCl 3 /Ar chemistry. Resultant etch rate/etch profiles are studied as a function of ICP process parameters and photoresist mask sidewall profile. The vertical and inclined sidewalls were obtained via controlling mixing gas proportion. Enhancing physical effect in etching, photoresist mask patterns could transfer to etched substrate. In the end, controllable sidewall profile, smooth etch surface and repeatable process of Al 0.12 GaAs/Al 0.9 GaAs DBRs etching were achieved. • The ICP etching is very critical in VCSEL fabrication procedure. • Because DBRs in VCSEL consists of about 20 pairs of an alternating sequence of layers of two different Al 0.12 GaAs/Al 0.9 GaAs materials, smooth and controllable etched profiles remains a technological challenge due to etching rate difference between the two kinds of materials. • Both vertical sidewall and sloped sidewall were achieved via making a balance between the physical effect and chemical effect. • It is found that the resultant final etch profiles are strongly dependent on the initial slope of photoresist mask and its selectivity. • Increasing photoresist baking temperature and additional thickness is helpful for smooth sidewall. The main purpose of the study was to develop optimized process sidewall profile, smooth etch surface and repeatable process of DBRs etching. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) of metal nanostructures has broad application prospects in the fields of sensing, energy, catalysis and optics. This paper reports a graphene-assisted method for preparing large-scale single-crystal Ag(111) nanoparticle (NP) arrays based on the ion implantation technique. By surface periodic patterning treatment and annealing of the implanted sample, regularly arranged Ag NPs can be prepared on the sample surface. A new application for graphene is proposed, that is, as a perfect barrier layer to prevent metal atoms from evaporating or diffusing. All the Ag NPs show (111) crystal orientation. Besides, the Ag atoms are covered by graphene immediately when they precipitate from the substrate, which can prevent them from being oxidized. On the basis of this structure, as one of the applications of the metal SPR, we have measured the surface-enhanced Raman scattering effect and found that the G peak of the Raman spectrum of the graphene achieved about 20 times enhancement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbon solid solubility in metals is an important factor affecting uniform graphene growth by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) at high temperatures. At low temperatures, however, it was found that the carbon diffusion rate (CDR) on the metal catalyst surface has a greater impact on the number and uniformity of graphene layers compared with that of the carbon solid solubility. The CDR decreases rapidly with decreasing temperatures, resulting in inhomogeneous and multilayer graphene. In the present work, a Ni–Cu alloy sacrificial layer was used as the catalyst based on the following properties. Cu was selected to increase the CDR, while Ni was used to provide high catalytic activity. By plasma-enhanced CVD, graphene was grown on the surface of Ni–Cu alloy under low pressure using methane as the carbon source. The optimal composition of the Ni–Cu alloy, 1:2, was selected through experiments. In addition, the plasma power was optimized to improve the graphene quality. On the basis of the parameter optimization, together with our previously-reported, in-situ, sacrificial metal-layer etching technique, relatively homogeneous wafer-size patterned graphene was obtained directly on a 2-inch SiO2/Si substrate at a low temperature (~600 °C). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]