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School feeding programs can support children's nutrition, health, and education in emergencies. This study assessed the feasibility, trade‐offs, cost efficiency, and perceived benefits of school feeding modalities operating in urban Yemen. It draws on primary data from a qualitative evaluation with 21 school feeding implementers and 88 beneficiaries conducted in Feb–Mar 2023, and secondary data from a desk review of published and program literature on school feeding operations. Results showed that school feeding provided students with on average 18%, 40%, and 66% of daily energy, protein, and micronutrient requirements, respectively. Models including fortified snacks were 3–11 times more cost‐efficient in terms of nutrient delivery. The most prominent strength of the models examined were the perceived benefits on child, family, and financial outcomes. Among the main weaknesses was the poor nutritional quality of the meal, which in turn emerged as a primary opportunity to improve school feeding through hybrid models providing a combination of fortified snacks and healthy meals. Other weaknesses such as poor water, sanitation, and hygiene infrastructure, and desired improvements such as the school kitchen and canteen, require considerable investments. Hybrid models are cost‐efficient, acceptable, and feasible in Yemen and can serve the diet and nutrition needs of school‐aged children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study compares the costs of a school-based online credit recovery model to more traditional teacher-directed credit recovery using rigorous cost analysis methods. Findings indicate that differences in the comprehensive costs for online and teacher-directed credit recovery classes are small. However, cost differences across the two models of specific types of resources are substantial and statistically significant. Online credit recovery classes resulted in higher district-incurred costs largely due to the purchase of online curricula and required technology. The online model incurred lower opportunity costs to teachers stemming from less out-of-class time devoted to grading, lesson planning, and developing course materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Autologous Platelet-rich fibrin (PRF) is an amalgam of fibrin mesh, platelets and growth factors that favour wound healing. It can be easily used as a graft material in myringoplasty, making it a promising, easy to harvest and cost effective alternative compared to cartilage or fascia graft used in conventional myringoplasty. 50 patients of small to medium, dry central perforation underwent myringoplasty using PRF graft (Group 1). Results were compared to 50 patients with similar small to medium perforations who underwent conventional transcanal myringoplasty using temporalis fascia graft (Group 2): Outcome of surgery was measured by closure of perforation and improvement in hearing at 3 months. In group 1, overall closure rate was 70% while in group 2 it was 96%. For both small and medium perforations healing was significantly higher in group 2 compared to group 1, (100% vs 87.5%) for small perforations and (95.45% vs 66.67%) for medium perforations. Hearing gain was comparable in both groups in patients in whom healing of perforation occurred. PRF stands as a suitable graft material for closure of small perforations, but, lack of rigidity and early disintegration of the graft makes it less suitable for larger perforations compared to other conventional grafts such as temporalis fascia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Several organizations have proposed guidelines or clinical decision tools for the management of patients with disorders of gut‐brain interactions (DGBI) affecting the lower digestive tract including irritable bowel syndrome and chronic idiopathic constipation. Such algorithms are based on sequential therapeutic trials and modifying the treatment strategy based on efficacy and adverse events. Purpose: The aims of this review are to evaluate the evidence for efficacy of second‐ and third‐line pharmacotherapies and to assess the evidence for the alternative option to manage subgroups of patients with symptoms suggestive of lower DGBI based on diagnostic tests or documented dysfunctions. The preeminent tests to identify such subgroups that present with symptoms that overlap with lower DGBI are detailed: digital rectal examination as well as anorectal manometry and balloon expulsion for evacuation disorders, detailed measurements of colonic transit, and diagnosis of bile acid diarrhea or carbohydrate malabsorption based on biochemical measurements. The review also addresses the cost implications of screening to exclude alternative diagnoses and the costs of therapy associated with the therapeutic options following an algorithmic approach to treatment from the perspective of society, insurer, or patient. Finally, the costs of the diagnostic tests to identify actionable biomarkers and the evidence of efficacy of individualized therapy based on formal diagnosis or documentation of abnormal functions are detailed in the review. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/Aims: In March 2022, the Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI) released the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)/AAMI ST91:2021, their latest update on comprehensive, flexible, and semirigid endoscope reprocessing. These updated standards recommend the sterilization of high-risk endoscopes when possible and provide new recommendations for the precleaning, leak testing, manual cleaning, visual inspection, automated reprocessing, drying, storage, and transport of endoscopes. Methods: ANSI/AAMI ST91:2021 was compared with ANSI/AAMI ST91:2015 for major reprocessing differences that result in either time and/or cost increases. Time estimates were captured by explicit recommendation inclusion or taken from the literature. All the costs were estimated using publicly available resources. Results: The updated standards represent a potential 24.3-minute and 52.35 to 67.57 United States dollars increase per procedure in terms of reprocessing time and spending, respectively, not including capital investments. Capital costs per procedure were highly dependent on the procedure volume of the facility. Conclusions: The new AAMI standards recommend several major changes, such as sterilization, for facilities to reprocess and manage endoscopes between uses. As more facilities increase their reprocessing methods to reflect the updated standards, they do so at a cost and introduce several delays. As the reprocessing landscape evolves, facilities should consider their true costs and alternative solutions, such as single-use endoscopes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Strong commercial ties promote peace as states shun the opportunity costs of economic disruption. However, trade also enriches and empowers states, rendering them more capable of enforcing long-term settlements. Given economic disruption does not last forever, countries can be incentivized to trade short-term economic losses for long-term political or territorial gains. This trade-off can restrict or even reverse the pacifying effect of commerce as it renders states incapable of committing to existing peaceful deals. I argue the scope condition hinges on the existing power imbalance and the security externalities of trade, defined as states' abilities to translate trade gains into (potential) military power. For countries where the existing power gap is not extreme, the impact of bilateral strategic trade is contingent upon a country's trade externality relative to its opponent's. Although increased bilateral trade can be peace-promoting when the relative externality is small, the pacifying effects can dissipate as a relatively weaker state becomes more capable of exploiting trade gains. Building on recent work in network analysis, I propose a new measurement of trade externalities to test the above theory and find supporting results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Western states have provided billions of dollars of military aid to Ukraine to help it in its war against Russia. Yet, despite numerous discussions of the ethical issues raised by the war, there has been little discussion of the opportunity costs of this military assistance. Is it right that the West has prioritized military assistance to Ukraine, when the conflict in Ukraine is just one of numerous challenges facing the world, from forced displacement to global poverty, preventable disease to climate change? This article offers the first detailed engagement with this issue, taking seriously the nonideal feasibility constraints that states face. It firsts set out the prima facie case against assisting Ukraine militarily due to the opportunity costs. It then explores—and largely rejects—two responses: that military assistance is required to protect Ukrainian self-determination and that it is needed to stop the march of authoritarianism. It argues that the opportunity costs objection has serious force and counts against much of the provision of military assistance to Ukraine (although not all). This argument has broader implications for the extent to which states should prioritize military aid over other means of addressing global challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The widespread adoption of electric buses (EB) is hampered by battery degradation. Battery degradation refers to the phenomenon of lithium batteries shrinking in capacity and eventually becoming unusable due to the extensive charging and discharging behavior. This paper proposes a joint optimization of EBs vehicle scheduling and charging strategies that considers both explicit charging cost and implicit battery degradation cost. First, we construct a mathematical optimization model through the graph theory. Then, the battery degradation cost is computed by investigating the relationship between battery degradation and state of charge (SoC) during charging/discharging. Finally, the proposed model is linearized and solved efficiently. Numerical results show that 7.45% of the battery degradation cost and 6% of the total cost can be saved just by simply adjusting the vehicle scheduling and charging strategies. The battery degradation cost is much larger than the charging cost, which emphasizes the need to consider battery degradation. The results also provide some practical suggestions for operators. The lowest possible initial SoC can reduce battery degradation, while increasing the number of buses has little impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Why do human rights INGOs choose to work on some issues and not others? This article contends that, since the 1990s, the proliferation of issues within the remit of human rights INGOs has increased the moral opportunity costs of selection decisions. Growth in the number and diversity of issues has led to a "selection dilemma" where decision-makers face onerous ethical choices among a significant menu of options. To explain how decision-makers deal with this dilemma, the article builds on existing theoretical work on INGOs, primarily by constructivists, proposing that heuristic-led judgment on the part of key decision-makers is a central determinant in the (non-)adoption of issues. This explanation is examined empirically using a within-case paired analysis of decision-making in Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch. The article's findings provide preliminary evidence that heuristics shape selection outcomes in INGOs, adding further weight to IR scholarship, which stresses the influence of psychology and leaders in organizational and group decision-making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental markets are a rapidly emerging tool to mobilize private funding to incentivize landholders to undertake more sustainable land management. How units of biodiversity in these markets are measured and subsequently traded creates key challenges ecologically and economically because it determines whether environmental markets can deliver net gains in biodiversity and efficiently lower the costs of conservation. We developed and tested a metric for such markets based on the well‐established principle of irreplaceability from systematic conservation planning. Irreplaceability as a metric avoids the limitations of like‐for‐like trading and allows one to capture the multidimensional nature of ecosystems (e.g., habitats, species, ecosystem functioning) and simultaneously achieve cost‐effective, land‐manager‐led investments in conservation. Using an integrated ecological modeling approach, we tested whether using irreplaceability as a metric is more ecologically and economically beneficial than the simpler biodiversity offset metrics typically used in net gain and no‐net‐loss policies. Using irreplaceability ensured no net loss, or even net gain, of biodiversity depending on the targets chosen. Other metrics did not provide the same assurances and, depending on the flexibility with which biodiversity targets can be achieved, and how they overlap with development pressure, were less efficient. Irreplaceability reduced the costs of offsetting to developers and the costs of ecological restoration to society. Integrating economic data and systematic conservation planning approaches would therefore assure land managers they were being fairly rewarded for the opportunity costs of conservation and transparently incentivize the most ecologically and economically efficient investments in nature recovery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ever since Varela and Maturana proposed the concept of autopoiesis as the minimal requirement for life, there has been a focus on cellular systems that erect topological boundaries to separate themselves from their surrounding environment. Here, we reconsider whether the existence of such a spatial boundary is strictly necessary for self-producing entities. This work presents a novel computational model of a minimal autopoietic system inspired by dendrites and molecular dynamic simulations in three-dimensional space. A series of simulation experiments where the metabolic pathways of a particular autocatalytic set are successively inhibited until autocatalytic entities that could be considered autopoietic are produced. These entities maintain their distinctness in an environment containing multiple identical instances of the entities without the existence of a topological boundary. This gives rise to the concept of a metabolic boundary which manifests as emergent self-selection criteria for the processes of self-production without any need for unique identifiers. However, the adoption of such a boundary comes at a cost, as these autopoietic entities are less suited to their simulated environment than their autocatalytic counterparts. Finally, this work showcases a generalized metabolism-centered approach to the study of autopoiesis that can be applied to both physical and abstract systems alike. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On any given day, we make countless reaching movements to objects around us. While such ubiquity may suggest uniformity, each movement's speed is unique—why is this? Reach speed is known to be influenced by accuracy; we slow down to sustain high accuracy. However, in other forms of movement like walking or running, metabolic cost is often the primary determinant of movement speed. Here we bridge this gap and ask: how do metabolic cost and accuracy interact to determine speed of reaching movements? First, we systematically measure the effect of increasing mass on the metabolic cost of reaching across a range of movement speeds. Next, in a sequence of three experiments, we examine how added mass affects preferred reaching speed across changing accuracy requirements. We find that, while added mass consistently increases metabolic cost thereby leading to slower metabolically optimal movement speeds, self-selected reach speeds are slower than those predicted by an optimization of metabolic cost alone. We then demonstrate how a single model that considers both accuracy and metabolic costs can explain preferred movement speeds. Together, our findings provide a unifying framework to illuminate the combined effects of metabolic cost and accuracy on movement speed and highlight the integral role metabolic cost plays in determining reach speed. Author summary: How the brain implicitly controls movement speed remains unclear despite the prevalence of anomalous movement slowing in a range of movement and mental health disorders. Reaching speed has long been thought to be dictated by accuracy. Despite the predominant influence of metabolic cost on walking speed, any influence of effort on the control of speed in relatively low effort reaching movements has been underappreciated. Here we show that the implicit control of reaching speed is influenced by both the metabolic and accuracy requirements of the movement. We next propose a mathematical model that explains how accuracy, metabolic expenditure, and time costs, interact to determine the implicit choice of movement speed. Our results highlight that disease-related movement slowing can be modulated by factors beyond accuracy. Importantly, we show that movement costs such as metabolic cost have a strong influence, despite the relatively low cost of reaching. Economic variables such as time and subjective effort costs can also lead to movement slowing. Taken together, we present a unifying framework with which to interrogate the critical role accuracy, effort and time costs play in the implicit control of movement speed in health and disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conventional wisdom and evidence from democracies suggest that more education should increase voter turnout. This paper revisits this issue by analyzing turnout in China's rural elections. Employing an instrumental variable strategy, I find that more education reduces turnout in rural elections. I provide suggestive evidence that more educated people may face higher opportunity costs of voting, which explain about a quarter of cross-province variation in education-turnout links. I also discuss the role of other factors, including Confucian culture and election stakes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large quantities of 'negative emissions' will be required to meet the 1.5°C temperature target under the Paris agreement. As nations consider more ambitious emissions reductions goals, policy makers, carbon market participants and environmental advocates need to estimate the potential scale of nature-based climate solutions (NCS), against the opportunity cost of current land use. In this study we construct a simple linear regression model of the relationship between carbon abatement potential and agricultural profitability, the latter a proxy for opportunity cost, to describe the total set of options for NCS on the Australian continent. Sampling these same two variables at the sites of over 800 land-based offset projects accredited since 2015 shows how the market selected from these abatement options. The model demonstrates that offset projects, under a range of crediting methodologies, were typically selected where the ratio of abatement potential to opportunity cost is maximized. These results, produced from two readily available spatial variables, provide an empirically derived framework for those with an interest in the structure of the long-run supply curve for land-based carbon abatement. This modelling approach could be applied in any geographic region where similar spatial variables for agricultural profitability and abatement potential are available. We find a strong positive correlation between the quantity of abatement potential on a land parcel and its potential opportunity cost, the latter represented by agricultural profitability. The lowest cost abatement will be obtained by policies, including market mechanisms, that optimize these two factors rather than prioritizing one over the other. Policies that direct projects to 'marginal' agricultural land may lead to a more costly emissions reduction pathway. Our modelling approach is a key input to the development of a long-run supply curve for land-based abatement, essential to any strategy that relies heavily on negative emissions. Understanding the drivers of land-based abatement projects can help to predict the land use policy impacts of a higher offset requirement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biomonitoring of marine life has been enhanced in recent years by the integration of innovative DNA‐based approaches, which offer advantages over more laborious techniques (e.g. microscopy). However, trade‐offs between throughput, sensitivity and quantitative measurements must be made when choosing between the prevailing molecular methodologies (i.e. metabarcoding or qPCR/dPCR). Thus, the aim of the present study was to demonstrate the utility of a microfluidic‐enabled high‐throughput quantitative PCR platform (HTqPCR) for the rapid and cost‐effective development and validation of a DNA‐based multi‐species biomonitoring toolkit, using larvae of 23 commercially targeted bivalve and crustacean species as a case study. The workflow was divided into three main phases: definition of (off‐) target taxa and establishment of reference databases (PHASE 1); selection/development and assessment of molecular assays (PHASE 2); and protocol optimization and field validation (PHASE 3). 42 assays were eventually chosen and validated. Genetic signal not only showed good correlation with direct visual counts by microscopy but also showed the ability to provide quantitative data at the highest taxonomic resolution (species level) in a time‐ and cost‐effective fashion. This study developed a biomonitoring toolkit, demonstrating the considerable advantages of this state‐of‐the‐art technology in boosting the developmental testing and application of panels of molecular assays for the monitoring and management of natural resources. Once developed, this approach provides a cost and time‐effective alternative compared to other multi‐species approaches (e.g. metabarcoding). In addition, it is transferable to a wide range of species and will aid future monitoring programmes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates whether government support for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in an emerging economy creates their reluctance to grow, which is analogous to the Peter Pan Syndrome. We test our hypotheses by regression analyses on a sample of 2,779 firms from a unique Korean Innovation Survey dataset from 2005 to 2007. Our empirical results show that SMEs tend to hinder their growth as they approach SME eligibility thresholds beyond which public support ceases. Such a tendency intensifies as SMEs grow closer to the employment-size-contingent SME eligibility threshold and as they receive more public support. In addition, the likelihood of the Peter Pan Syndrome is conditioned by both firm- and industry-specific characteristics. As government support for SMEs based on size-contingent eligibility criteria has a detrimental side-effect, other merit- or effort-based criteria should be considered. It is also desirable to reduce the opportunity cost involved in graduating from SMEs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study discusses a real options valuation approach based on the familiar opportunity cost concept. After demonstrating the equivalence of the opportunity model to the binomial lattice approach of Cox, Ross, and Rubinstein (CRR), we discuss its attributes through simple numerical examples. In contrast to the CRR approach, the transparency of the opportunity model provides an intuitive and economical baseline for managerial discussions and decision-making. We focus on the opportunity costs inherently embedded in the real options value (ROV); therefore, our study is distinct from most other studies, which consider them as the exogenous input to the ROV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Setting the decision agenda requires restricting information and focusing attention on specific issue dimensions. Agenda setting also carries opportunity costs: focusing on some issues and proposals means others go unaddressed. Agenda setting thus generates conflict about the choice of issues and selection of alternatives and proposals. Using data on "views" attached to U.S. Senate committee reports and Volden and Wiseman's legislative effectiveness scores, I show that more effective legislators are more likely to express disagreement with agenda-setting choices. And rather than harm senators' future prospects at advancing legislation, expressing disagreement is associated with more subsequent legislative success relative to what other individual and institutional characteristics would predict, particularly in the middle stages of the legislative process. This article's findings illuminate potential short-term benefits to expressing disagreement in agenda setting. I also find these activities have declined over time, which suggests changes in the institutional environment about venues for expressing disagreement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mineral deposits have shown decreasing ore grade and increasing complexity, which has led mining projects to experience increased capital and operating costs. Preconcentration is an alternative to minimize such costs. Notwithstanding the resulting rise in ore grade and reduction in feed mass, the generated tailings may contain significant amounts of the material of interest. In order to improve the mineral liberation at this stage, selective comminution proposes to explore different comminution mechanisms. This investigation compared three different crushing methods (jaw crusher, impact crusher, and high-pressure roller mill) for three different types of ores and the response of their products to pre-concentration, using a gravity method that was evaluated through heavy-liquid separation of the -6.35+3.35 mm crushed fraction. This fraction represents approximately 15% of the total sample, and is used as an indication of the gangue rejection potential for the -12+1.18 mm fraction. Copper and polymetallic ores showed good pre-concentration results for this size range at laboratory scale, with metallurgical recoveries greater than 90% and a rejection of over 20% of mass. Iron ore showed a 97% metallurgical recovery and 10% mass rejection. The impact crusher proved to be the best option for selective comminution for the polymetallic ore, with the highest metallurgical recovery. Finally, no significant differences were observed when using any of the three crushing mechanisms for the copper and iron ore. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Free-space optical (FSO) communication can be subject to various types of distortion and loss as the signal propagates through non-uniform media. In experiment and simulation, we demonstrate that the state of polarization and degree of polarization of light passed though underwater bubbles, causing turbulence, is preserved. Our experimental setup serves as an efficient, low cost alternative approach to long distance atmospheric or underwater testing. We compare our experimental results with those of simulations, in which we model underwater bubbles, and separately, atmospheric turbulence. Our findings suggest potential improvements in polarization based FSO communication schemes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The circular economy is a way of eliminating the shortage of raw materials that Europe is currently facing. However, it is necessary to explicitly identify the problems that prevent greater involvement in the CE. This article is focused on consumers and how they treat discarded or non-functional items. The aim was to fill the research gap, i.e. to compile a suitable CE model and define a methodology that would ensure the efficient disposal of non-functional or unsuitable items by consumers. An original methodology was drawn up to conduct the representative research, designed to lead to the practical application of the proposed CE model. The research explored how consumers treat non-functional or unsuitable items, the costs they incur in discarding, renovating, reusing, and recycling such items, and the alternative costs of unsorted municipal waste. After the data had been implemented into the model the circular economy was proven to have an economic benefit for the national economy in all groups. However, the economic disadvantage for consumers was also calculated, where the cost of involvement in the CE is higher than the cost of unsorted municipal waste. This means that people are motivated to play a part in the CE more by their own responsible approach to life, or social pressure from those around them. Based on this research it may be said that economic aspects are one reason that consumers tend to be reluctant to get more involved in the CE. Unless there is a significant rise in the cost of municipal waste that would motivate consumers to move towards the CE for financial reasons, in order to support the CE consumers need to be better stimulated, educated and informed as much as possible through the media. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Asset-based approaches (ABAs) tackle health inequalities by empowering people in more disadvantaged communities, or targeted populations, to better utilise pre-existing local community-based resources. Using existing resources supports individuals to better manage their own health and its determinants, potentially at low cost. Targeting individuals disengaged with traditional service delivery methods offers further potential for meaningful cost-savings, since these people often require costly care. Thus, improving prevention, and management, of ill-health in these groups may have considerable cost implications. Aim: To systematically review the extent of current cost and economic evidence on ABAs, and methods used to develop it. Methods: Search strategy terms encompassed: i) costing; ii) intervention detail; and iii) locality. Databases searched: Medline, CENTRAL and Wed of Science. Researchers screened 9,116 articles. Risk of bias was assessed using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) tool. Narrative synthesis summarised findings. Results: Twelve papers met inclusion criteria, representing eleven different ABAs. Within studies, methods varied widely, not only in design and comparators, but also in terms of included costs and outcome measures. Studies suggested economic efficiency, but lack of suitable comparators made more definitive conclusions difficult. Conclusion: Economic evidence around ABAs is limited. ABAs may be a promising way to engage underserved or minority groups, that may have lower net costs compared to alternative health and wellbeing improvement approaches. ABAs, an example of embedded services, suffer in the context of economic evaluation, which typically consider services as mutually exclusive alternatives. Economics of the surrounding services, mechanisms of information sharing, and collaboration underpin the success of assets and ABAs. The economic evidence, and evaluations in general, would benefit from increased context and detail to help ensure more nuanced and sophisticated understanding of the economics of ABAs. Further evidence is needed to reach conclusions about cost-effectiveness of ABAs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Here we propose to investigate Ni-functionalized saponite (smectite group) as a viable alternative for low cost H 2 storage for land-based applications. The precursor gel used for saponite synthesis is also tested with respect to its H 2 adsorption properties. Adsorption isotherms recorded at 77 K and 1 bar, 298 K and 120 bar indicate that nickel functionalization does not induce a clear structural or chemical control on the adsorption process. However, Ni-pillared saponites outgassed at 70 °C display a four-time enhanced H 2 uptake (up to 0.12 wt% at 77 K and 1 bar) compared to its counterpart outgassed at 150 °C. Another important finding of this study is the surprisingly high H 2 uptakes of the gel (nano-crystallized) precursor, used for the synthesis of saponite samples (up to 0.19 wt% at 77 K and 1 bar, and up to 0.12 wt% at 298 K and 120 bar). • Nickel functionalization does not induce a clear structural or chemical control on the adsorption process. • Ni-pillared saponites outgassed at 70 °C display a four-time enhanced H 2 uptake (up to 0.12 wt% at 77 K and 1 bar). • Surprisingly high H 2 uptakes of the nano-crystallized gel used for saponite synthesis (up to 0.12 wt% at 298 K and 120 bar). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Internet of Vehicles (IoV) plays a crucial role in advancing intelligent transportation systems. However, due to limited processing power, IoV faces challenges in independently handling large volumes of data, necessitating the use of offloading as a solution. Offloading data in wireless environments raises security concerns, highlighting the need for robust data protection mechanisms. This study introduces a secure offloading (SO) scheme within the Fog-Cloud Federation for IoV. The proposed NSO-VFC scheme undergoes both informal and formal analysis using the Avispa tool, demonstrating resilience against active and passive attacks. Performance evaluations indicate that the security measures of NSO-VFC meet acceptable standards compared to similar approaches. Nonetheless, the heightened focus on security incurs higher computational and communication costs than alternative strategies. Simulation experiments using the NS3 tool involve varying numbers of IoVs (50, 70, and 100), revealing that increased IoV density correlates with enhanced packet delivery rates and throughput within the NSO-VFC scheme. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the economic effects of defense expenditures have become an issue of intense interest over the recent decades, little is known about how the individual components of military spending affect the economy. Nevertheless, military spending is highly heterogeneous in its nature consisting of assorted categories that broadly encompass salaries' payment, operations, training, research and development, and maintenance of equipment, arms and facilities. Naturally, this implies that military spending can affect the economy in various and probably contradictory ways. Hence, by considering this distinctive element of military spending, the present paper aims to uncover the economic effects of the most important components of the US defense budget focusing on a period from 1949 to 2021. Applying linear and non–linear methods on a Barro–style regression, the statistical evidence reported herein suggests that heavy reliance on the military sector entails potentially high opportunity costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Compliance data consists of manufacturing quality measures collected in the production process. Quality checks are most of the times computationally expensive to perform, mainly due to the amount of collected data. Having trusted solutions for outsourcing analyses to the Cloud is an opportunity for reducing costs of operation. However, the adoption of the Cloud computation paradigm is delayed for the many security risks associated with it. In the use case we consider in this paper, compliance data is very sensitive, because it may contain IP-critical information, or it may be related to safety-critical operations or products. While the technological solutions that protect data in-transit or at rest have reached a satisfying level of maturity, there is a huge demand for securing data in-use. Homomorphic Encryption (HE) is one of the main technological enablers for secure computation outsourcing. In the last decade, HE has reached maturity with remarkable pace. However, using HE is still far from being an automated process and each use case introduces different challenges. In this paper, we investigate application of HE to the described scenario. In particular, we redesign the compliance check algorithm to a HE-friendly equivalent. We propose efficient data input encoding that takes advantage of SIMD type of computations supported by the CKKS HE scheme. Moreover, we introduce security/performance trade-offs by proposing limited but acceptable information leakage. We have implemented our solution using SEAL HE library and evaluated our results in terms of time complexity and accuracy. Finally, we analyze the benefits and limitations of integration of a Trusted Execution Environment for secure execution of some computations that are overly expensive for the chosen HE scheme. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accessibility to financial resources is considered a prevalent problem in the agricultural sector. We develop an approach to quantify the long‐term opportunity costs of financial constraints in relation to peers who do not face any financial constraints. Using data on past financial performance, we assess creditworthiness and the size of an additional accessible bank loan to farmers. Combining this with data on reported expenditure, we determine the accessible finance. We quantify the opportunity cost as the forgone dynamic profit (intertemporal profit in current‐value terms) from financial constraints. Using data envelopment analysis, we apply our approach to 264 specialised Dutch dairy farms for the years 2006–2017 and explore the potential impact of changes in finance provision for several scenarios. Our results show an increasing gap between frontrunners and other farmers, as the latter generate progressively less dynamic profit in comparison to their best peers. The gap between the dynamic profit of the average farm and that of its best peers from their production and investment decisions made over the span of 1 year grew from €40,040 in 2009 to €114,548 in 2017. However, the growth is not driven by insufficient access to finance. Financial constraints can only explain 6% of the forgone dynamic profit in 2009 and as little as 1% for 2017. The number of farms classified as financially constrained in comparison to their peers decreases in our sample from 44% in 2009 to 8% in 2017. This suggests that non‐financial factors are driving the growing gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As high-cost medicines put increasing pressure on public health care budgets, the need to identify 'fair' prices for medicines has never been greater. This paper proposes a framework, built upon fundamental economic principles, that allows for the consideration of 'fair' prices for medicines. The framework incorporates key considerations from conventional supply-side and demand-side approaches for specifying a cost-effectiveness 'threshold', including the health opportunity cost borne by other patients (k ) and society's willingness to pay for marginal improvements in population health (v ). The costs incurred by manufacturers in developing and supplying new medicines are also considered, as are the incentives for manufacturers to strategically price up to any common price per unit of benefit (cost-effectiveness 'threshold') specified by the payer. The framework finds that, at any 'fair' price, a medicine's dynamically calculated incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) lies below k . When pricing medicines collectively, the framework finds that a common price below k is required to maximize population health (consumer surplus) or to maximize total welfare (consumer and producer surplus). This framework has important policy implications for payers who wish to improve population health outcomes from constrained health care budgets. In particular, existing approaches to 'value-based pricing' should be reconsidered to ensure that patients receive a 'fair' share of the resulting economic surplus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the potential benefits and challenges of using new rehabilitation technology in the ICU, particularly in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. The authors conducted a pilot randomized controlled trial to evaluate the feasibility of using robotic-assisted mobility activities in mechanically ventilated patients with COVID-19. The study found that the implementation of the robotic-assisted intervention was feasible and safe, although it required more clinical staff compared to usual care. The authors emphasize the importance of pilot and feasibility studies in optimizing intervention implementation and highlight the need for detailed reporting of usual care characteristics. They also acknowledge the opportunity cost of introducing technology into the ICU and emphasize the irreplaceable role of human clinicians in rehabilitation treatments. [Extracted from the article]

Poor employment prospects for potential insurgents are often thought to increase the intensity of armed conflict. A large empirical literature tries to identify the strength of this "opportunity cost" channel, in part by regressing conflict on commodity price shocks that affect the demand for workers. In this research note we develop a theoretical framework to interpret these empirical results. We argue that because commodity price shocks are usually persistent, the estimated strength of the opportunity cost mechanism will be biased upwards (towards zero)—even for labor-intensive commodities whose price shocks are not permanent. We define this bias analytically and, using regressions on simulated data, show that it is quantitatively important for commodities studied in the literature. The bias occurs because persistent shocks that reduce employment prospects today are correlated with unobserved dynamic motivations to fight, such as the expected value of an oil field or a fighter's subjective value of a grievance. We conclude that the opportunity cost mechanism may be even stronger than has been estimated, and that researchers should use transient, seasonal or anticipated shocks to identify its magnitude. Con frecuencia, se tiene la tendencia a pensar que el hecho de que los potenciales insurgentes tengan unas expectativas pobres en materia de empleabilidad contribuye a aumentar la intensidad de los conflictos armados. Existe una amplia bibliografía, de carácter empírico, que trata de identificar la fortaleza de este canal de «coste de oportunidad». Esto, lo hace, en parte, mediante la regresión del conflicto con respecto a las perturbaciones en materia de precios de los productos básicos, las cuales afectan la demanda de trabajadores. En esta nota de investigación, desarrollamos un marco teórico para interpretar estos resultados empíricos. Argumentamos que, debido a que las perturbaciones en materia de precios de los productos básicos suelen ser persistentes, la fortaleza estimada del mecanismo de coste de oportunidad estará sesgada al alza (hacia cero), incluso para aquellos productos básicos intensivos en mano de obra para los cuales las perturbaciones en materia de precios no resultan permanentes. Definimos este sesgo de forma analítica y demostramos, mediante el uso de regresiones en datos simulados, que este resulta cuantitativamente importante para los productos estudiados en la bibliografía. El sesgo se produce porque los cambios persistentes que contribuyen, actualmente, a reducir las perspectivas de empleo se correlacionan con motivaciones dinámicas para luchar que no han sido tenidas en cuenta, como el valor esperado de un campo petrolero o el valor subjetivo que un combatiente otorga a un agravio. Concluimos que el mecanismo de coste de oportunidad puede ser incluso más fuerte de lo que se había estimado, y que los investigadores deben usar perturbaciones transitorias o estacionales para poder identificar su magnitud. Des perspectives d'emploi médiocres pour les rebelles potentiels intensifieraient souvent les conflits armés. Une abondante littérature empirique tente d'identifier la force de ce canal de « coût d'opportunité », en partie en remontant le conflit jusqu'à une crise des prix des matières premières qui a une incidence sur la demande de travailleurs. Dans cette note de recherche, nous développons un cadre théorique pour interpréter ces résultats empiriques. Nous affirmons que puisque les crises des prix des matières premières sont généralement de longue durée, l'estimation de la force du mécanisme coût-opportunité sera haussière (vers zéro), même pour les marchandises intensives en travail dont les crises de prix ne sont pas permanentes. Nous définissons ce biais sur le plan analytique et, à l'aide de régressions à partir de données simulées, nous montrons son importance quantitative pour les matières premières étudiées dans la littérature. Le biais intervient quand des crises persistantes qui réduisent les perspectives d'emploi aujourd'hui sont corrélées à des motifs de conflit dynamiques, comme la valeur attendue d'un champ pétrolifère ou la valeur subjective qu'un combattant accorde à un grief. La conclusion indique que l'importance du mécanisme coût-opportunité pourrait bien être plus élevée que nos estimations, et suggère aux chercheurs d'utiliser des crises passagères ou saisonnières pour identifier son ampleur. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the benefits of short-term study abroad programs are well documented, especially with respect to enhancing cross-cultural competency in the participants, fewer than one percent of college students in the U.S. benefit from this experience. The principal barriers to studying abroad are actual and opportunity costs and its perceived worth. An alternative model is presented here in which the culturally-diverse, internationally-oriented megacities of North America – New York, Miami, Los Angeles, and Houston, among others – can serve as domestic alternatives where a curated set of experiences and learning opportunities can provide educational outcomes akin to those obtained through traditional study abroad programs, at a substantially lower cost to a larger and more diverse student body. A case study, that is easily replicable, is showcased. Limitations of this pedagogical alternative and guidelines for instructors are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shared autonomous electric vehicle systems (SAEVS) combine autonomous driving technology with shared electric vehicle services to provide advantages over traditional shared vehicle systems, including autonomous vehicle relocation and rapid response to user needs. In this study, we seek to enhance the operational efficiency and profitability of SAEVS by considering trip selection and the potential opportunity cost associated with unmet user demands. An integer linear programming (ILP) model is developed using a spatio-temporal state network to optimize the system design planning (e.g., charging facility, vehicle fleet sizing and distribution) and operational decisions (e.g., vehicle operational relocation and trip selection strategy). To handle the computational complexities of this model, we propose a Lagrangian relaxation (LR) algorithm. The performance of the LR algorithm is evaluated through a case study. The results, along with a parameter sensitivity analysis, reveal several key findings: (ⅰ) Allocating vehicles to stations with concentrated early peak demand, distributing charging facilities to stations with high total demand throughout the day and implementing vehicle relocation after the early demand peak can mitigate uneven vehicle distribution; (ⅱ) Implementing trip selection enhances SAEVS profitability; (ⅲ) Increasing opportunity cost meets user demands but at the expense of reduced profit; (ⅳ) It is recommended that SAEVS be equipped with charging facilities of suitable charging power based on operational conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evidence suggests that one's likelihood of media multitasking increases with time-on-task, which can negatively impact performance. The opportunity costs account of sustained attention might explain this finding. This account states that rising feelings of boredom and effort signal increasing opportunity costs, motivating us to direct our attention elsewhere and causing progressive decreases in performance. We examined whether patterns of media multitasking, boredom, effort and performance during a sustained attention task supported the notion that rising opportunity costs drive temporal increases in media multitasking. We further tested this account by affording one group of participants the option to respond to increasing opportunity costs by watching a video (media multitasking) while completing the task. Another group received no such option. Temporal patterns of media multitasking, boredom, effort and performance partially supported the opportunity costs view. Surprisingly, many also multitasked with activities outside the experimental context. Exploratory analyses revealed that patterns of boredom, effort and performance among these individuals and those who did not multitask supported the opportunity costs view. Our findings suggest that many media multitask in response to rising opportunity costs signaled by changes in feelings of boredom and effort – a relation that may be particularly problematic for online studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives: One of the aims of patient blood management (PBM) programs is to improve patient outcomes by managing anemia and avoiding unnecessary blood transfusions. Ferric derisomaltose (FDI) is a treatment that allows for the injection of high doses of iron in a shorter time, which makes it a promising approach for correcting iron-deficiency anemia (IDA) more efficiently. This study aimed to assess the safety, effectiveness, and cost implications of FDI in a PBM program and its impact on transfusion requirements. Methods: A retrospective analysis was conducted on electronic medical records of adult patients diagnosed with IDA who received FDI as part of a PBM strategy in a tertiary hospital from November 2019 to June 2021. Descriptive statistics summarized patient characteristics and outcomes. Changes in hemoglobin (Hb) levels were evaluated using a paired t-test. Cost analysis included direct and indirect expenses associated with FDI administration compared to alternative treatments. Results: Out of the initially enrolled 110 patients, 67 were included in the analysis. A mean increase in Hb levels of 2.7 ± 1.9 g/dL was observed as early as 4 days post-FDI administration. The majority of patients (94.0%) tolerated FDI well, with only a few experiencing mild adverse reactions. Following FDI administration, blood transfusion was avoided by 88% of patients. Cost analysis revealed that while FDI demonstrated higher direct costs compared to alternative treatments, its potential for lower total costs became apparent when considering both direct and indirect expenses. Conclusions: FDI demonstrated promising results in rapidly correcting IDA within a PBM program. It reduced the need for blood transfusions, with the treatment being well-tolerated by patients. The inclusion of FDI administration in PBM programs offers a convenient, efficient, and potentially cost-effective approach to managing IDA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Beef production accounts for the largest share of global livestock greenhouse gas emissions and is an important target for climate mitigation efforts. Most life-cycle assessments comparing the carbon footprint of beef production systems have been limited to production emissions. None also consider potential carbon sequestration due to grazing and alternate uses of land used for production. We assess the carbon footprint of 100 beef production systems in 16 countries, including production emissions, soil carbon sequestration from grazing, and carbon opportunity cost—the potential carbon sequestration that could occur on land if it were not used for production. We conduct a pairwise comparison of pasture-finished operations in which cattle almost exclusively consume grasses and forage, and grain-finished operations in which cattle are first grazed and then fed a grain-based diet. We find that pasture-finished operations have 20% higher production emissions and 42% higher carbon footprint than grain-finished systems. We also find that more land-intensive operations generally have higher carbon footprints. Regression analysis indicates that a 10% increase in land-use intensity is associated with a 4.8% increase in production emissions, but a 9.0% increase in carbon footprint, including production emissions, soil carbon sequestration and carbon opportunity cost. The carbon opportunity cost of operations was, on average, 130% larger than production emissions. These results point to the importance of accounting for carbon opportunity cost in assessing the sustainability of beef production systems and developing climate mitigation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research paper introduces a comprehensive approach for evaluating material alternatives in the design of low cost robotic wheelchair chassis, incorporating a combined CRITIC (Criteria Importance through Intercriteria Correlation), EDAS (Evaluation based on Distance from Average Solution), and COPRAS (Complex Proportional Assessment) framework. Material selection has a significant impact on robotic wheelchair performance and longevity, offering issues due to many criteria and sophisticated decision-making in engineering design. The proposed framework solves these issues by combining three well-known multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) techniques by considering 7 criteria and 12 potential alternate materials. CRITIC assesses the relevance of criteria, EDAS rates material alternatives, and COPRAS computes comprehensive performance ratings while taking interdependencies into account. Wheelchair Chassis Materials are assessed based on SOLIDWORKS analysis for mechanical qualities and online B2B market data for cost, weight, and other relevant factors. Gray cast iron emerges as the most favorable choice for the robotic wheelchair chassis, showcasing its exceptional balance of attributes. This study adds important insights to material selection for complex engineering systems and assistive technology design, resulting in better wheelchair design and user experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In practice, selling goods through a powerful retailer such as Wal-Mart enables the supplier to access the retailer's ERP for accurate demand information (e.g., Wal-Mart's Retail Link). However, in the recent years, we observe the suppliers are suffering from longer and longer average account period when they contract with powerful retailers. Therefore, whether partnering with a powerful retailer at the cost of a longer account period becomes the supplier's strategic decision. In this paper, we formulate the supplier's tradeoffs among the information advantage, payment disadvantage, and channel competition when it makes retailing decisions. We study the supplier's two representative strategies: (1) relying on a small retailer that does not accumulate much information but can settle accounts immediately (referred to as Real-time Payment Retailing) or (2) relying on a powerful retailer that shares accurate demand information but incurs deferred payment (referred to as Deferred Payment Retailing). We built game-theoretical models and found that, interestingly, the supplier will prefer Deferred Payment Retailing when the supplier's cash opportunity cost is high. We identify three interactive forces, namely, the pricing power effect, the demand size effect, and the information value, to interpret the rationality of the supplier's preferences over Real-time and Deferred Payment Retailing strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Concerns about the opportunity costs of social screening initiatives have led some healthcare organizations to consider using social deprivation indices (area-level social risks) as proxies for self-reported needs (individual-level social risks). Yet, little is known about the effectiveness of such substitutions across different populations. This analysis explores how well the highest quartile (cold spot) of three different area-level social risk measures—the Social Deprivation Index, Area Deprivation Index, and Neighborhood Stress Score—corresponds with six individual-level social risks and three risk combinations among a national sample of Medicare Advantage members (N=77,503). Data were derived from area-level measures and cross-sectional survey data collected between October 2019 and February 2020. Agreement between individual and individual-level social risks, sensitivity values, specificity values, positive predictive values, and negative predictive values was calculated for all measures in summer/fall 2022. Agreement between area and individual-level social risks ranged from 53% to 77%. Sensitivity for each risk and risk category never exceeded 42%; specificity values ranged from 62% to 87%. Positive predictive values ranged from 8% to 70%, and negative predictive values ranged from 48% to 93%. There were modest performance discrepancies across area-level measures. These findings provide additional evidence that area-level deprivation indices may be inconsistent indicators of individual-level social risks, supporting policy efforts to promote individual-level social screening programs in healthcare settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In 2017, the WHO recommended the use of digital technologies, such as medication monitors and video observed treatment (VOT), for directly observed treatment (DOT) of drug-susceptible TB. The WHO's 2020 guidelines extended these recommendations to multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB), based on low evidence. The impact of COVID on health systems and patients underscored the need to use digital technologies in the management of MDR-TB. Methods: A decision-tree model was developed to explore the costs of several potential DOT alternatives: VOT, 99DOTS (Directly-observed Treatment, Short-course) and family-observed DOT. Assuming a 9-month, all-oral regimen (as evaluated within the STREAM trial), we constructed base-case cost models for the standard-of-care DOTs in Ethiopia, India, and Uganda, as well as for the three alternative DOT approaches. The models were populated with STREAM Stage 2 clinical trial outcome and cost data, supplemented with market prices data for the digital DOT strategies. Sensitivity analyses were conducted on key parameters. Results: Modelling suggested that the standard-of-care DOT approach is the most expensive DOT strategy from a societal perspective in all three countries evaluated (Ethiopia, India, Uganda), with considerable direct- and indirect-costs incurred by patients. The second most expensive DOT approach is VOT, with high health-system costs, largely caused by up-front technology expenditure. Each of VOT, 99DOTS and family-observed DOT would reduce by more than 90% patients' direct and indirect costs compared to standard of care DOT. Results were robust to the sensitivity analyses. Conclusions: While data on the costs and efficacy of alternative DOT approaches in the context of shorter MDR-TB treatment is limited, our modelling suggests alternative DOT approaches can significantly reduce patient costs in all three countries. Health system costs are higher for VOT and lower for 99DOTS and family-observed therapy when compared to standard of care DOT, as low smartphone penetration and internet availability requires the VOT health system to fund the cost of making them available to patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines patterns of voter defection from Turkey's incumbent AKP amid major economic and democratic decline. As in other electoral autocracies, defectors constitute a small but politically significant group in Turkey, where the opposition's ability to secure a transition from authoritarianism depends on reducing the incumbent's vote share. Based on survey data gathered in November 2021 and February 2022, we find that while the high level of partizanship among AKP voters hinders defection, persistent economic and democratic decline still reduces incumbent support. We also found that defections are higher outside of the lowest income group. Our findings have important implications for opposition strategies in electoral autocracies. Directing public debate away from identity issues to economic and democratic problems increases the likelihood of defection. In addition, offering voters clear superior alternatives decreases the cost of uncertainty that comes with change and increases the likelihood of defection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most studies of the 'commercial peace' hypothesis – that trade increases the opportunity costs of war, making it less likely – assume the state has a unified interest with respect to trade. However, it is well-established that trade creates economic winners and losers within a country. Loss of export markets due to conflict imposes significant costs on local economies, but disruption of imports is often less costly, and potentially even beneficial. We posit that opposition to conflict should correlate with subnational variation in the degree to which trade represents benefits or losses for groups and individuals within the polity. Examining public opinion data from Ukraine in 2014–15, early in its long-term conflict with Russia, we disaggregate by province and find that, the greater the importance of regional net exports to Russia, the less likely citizens are to support fighting against Russia and the more they are willing to accept costly compromises to end the conflict. We demonstrate the robustness of these findings using two separate surveys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In underground mining, the application of mine backfill has evolved into a standard practice. Mine backfill typically consists of tailings, water, and hydraulic binders. However, the high cost of binders has prompted scholars to research alternatives to reduce this cost while maintaining or even improving the properties of the backfill. One potential alternative is leveraging microwave irradiation. In this study, an innovative approach was developed to increase the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of early age cemented paste backfill (CPB). Microwave treatment was applied to CPB samples at various curing ages for varying durations. The UCS and ultrasonic pulse velocities were measured and analyzed in an experiment with a full factorial design. Moreover, the microstructural properties of the CPB were investigated using mercury intrusion porosimetry. The results indicate a significant potential to increase the UCS of CPB by up to 25% when microwave-treating samples for 8 min after 7 days of curing. This approach could shorten mining cycle times and improve productivity, presenting a promising method to enhance CPB strength. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rewards lose value as a function of delay. Previous studies suggest that delays have a bigger effect on reward value when people must wait during the delay. However, whether delays involve waiting or postponing has often been confounded with whether choices are about hypothetical or real rewards. The current study characterized the effects of waiting and postponing in hypothetical and experiential choice contexts separately. In Experiment 1 we observed steeper delay discounting for waiting than for postponing in choices about both hypothetical money and about experienced computer game points. Two factors potentially contributing to steeper discounting in choices about waiting are reduced access to other rewards and direct costs of waiting. In Experiment 2, we adapted the experiential delay‐discounting task to manipulate each factor separately. Reduced access to other reinforcers had a bigger effect on delay discounting than direct costs of waiting. These results underscore the importance of considering the unique influence of waiting and associated opportunity costs in both basic delay‐discounting research and in applied contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Methods for assessing acceptability of healthcare interventions have been inconsistent until the development of the theoretical framework of acceptability (TFA). Despite its rapid adoption in healthcare research, the TFA has rarely been used to assess acceptability of surgical interventions. We sought to explore the sufficiency of the TFA in this context and provide methodological guidance to support systematic use of this framework in research. Method: Acceptability was assessed in a consecutive sample of 15 patients at least 3 months post‐joint replacement surgery via theory‐informed semi‐structured interviews. A detailed description of the application of the TFA is reported. This includes: development of the interview guide (including questions to assess theoretical sufficiency), analysis of interview data and interpretation of findings. Results: Interview data were substantially codable into the TFA constructs but required the addition of a construct, labelled 'perceived safety and risk', and relabelling and redefining an existing construct (new label: 'opportunity costs and gains'). Methodological recommendations for theory‐informed interview studies include producing interview support material to enhance precision of the intervention description, conducting background conversations with a range of stakeholders in the healthcare setting, and conducting first inductive and then deductive thematic analysis. Conclusion: The sufficiency of the TFA could be enhanced for use when assessing interventions with an identifiable risk profile, such as surgery, by the inclusion of an additional construct to capture perceptions of risk and safety. We offer these methodological recommendations to guide researchers and facilitate consistency in the application of the TFA in theory‐informed interview studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most countries rolled out COVID-19 vaccination during 2021–2022. However, COVID-19 vaccine delivery cost estimates are still needed to support planning and budgeting to integrate COVID-19 vaccines into routine programs and to target high risk populations, specifically within resource-scarce contexts. Management Sciences for Health and the COVID-19 Vaccine Delivery Partnership Working Group collected country-level data through two surveys exploring global experiences with vaccine roll-out. 40 respondents from 27 countries responded to the surveys in November 2021 and May 2022. Respondents described their country's human resources needs, vaccine delivery modalities, demand generation strategies, booster uptake, cold chain capacity, supplies, and sub-population targets. The surveys highlighted unexpected trends in hiring, reliance on newer and costlier delivery and demand generation methods and significant gaps regarding HR, supplies, boosters, cold chain and reaching sub-populations. These types of opportunity assessments are useful ways of rapidly filling gaps in information needed to adequately cost alternative delivery strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]