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Understanding lava flow processes is important for interpreting existing lavas and for hazard assessments. Although substantial progress has been made for basaltic lavas our understanding of silicic lava flows has seen limited recent advance. In particular, the formation of lava flow breakouts, which represent a characteristic process in coolinglimited basaltic lavas, but has not been described in established models of rhyolite emplacement. Using data from the 2011-2012 rhyolite eruption of Puyehue-Cordón Caulle, Chile, we develop the first conceptual framework to classify breakout types in silicic lavas, and to describe the processes involved in their progressive growth, inflation, and morphological change. By integrating multiscale satellite, field, and textural data from Cordón Caulle, we interpret breakout formation to be driven by a combination of pressure increase (from local vesiculation in the lava flow core, as well as from continued supply via extended thermally preferential pathways) and a weakening of the surface crust through lateral spreading and fracturing. Small breakouts, potentially resulting more from local vesiculation than from continued magma supply, show a domed morphology, developing into petaloid as inflation increasingly fractures the surface crust. Continued growth and fracturing results in a rubbly morphology, with the most inflated breakouts developing into a cleft-split morphology, reminiscent of tumulus inflation structures seen in basalts. These distinct morphological classes result from the evolving relative contributions of continued breakout advance and inflation. The extended nature of some breakouts highlights the role of lava supply under a stationary crust, a process ubiquitous in inflating basalt lava flows that reflects the presence of thermally preferential pathways. Textural analyses of the Cordón Caulle breakouts also emphasize the importance of late-stage volatile exsolution and vesiculation within the lava flow. Although breakouts occur across the compositional spectrum of lava flows, the greater magma viscosity is likely to make late-stage vesiculation much more important for breakout development in silicic lavas than in basalts. Such late-stage vesiculation has direct implications for hazards previously recognized from silicic lava flows, enhancing the likelihood of flow front collapse, and explosive decompression of the lava core. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Volcanic ash clouds can present an aviation hazard over distances of thousands of kilometres and, to help to mitigate this hazard, advanced numerical models are used to forecast ash dispersion in the atmosphere. However, forecast accuracy is usually limited by uncertainties in initial conditions such as the eruption rate and the vertical distribution of ash injected above the volcano. Here, we demonstrate the potential of the Telematics Earth Observation Mission (TOM) picosatellite formation, due for launch in 2020, to provide valuable information for constraining ash cloud dispersion models through simultaneous image acquisition from three satellites. TOM will carry commercial frame cameras. Using photogrammetric simulations, we show that such data should enable ash cloud heights to be determined with a precision (~30–140 m depending on configuration) comparable to the vertical resolution of lidar observations (30–180 m depending on the cloud height). To support these estimates, we processed photographs taken from the International Space Station of the 2009 Sarychev Peak eruption, as a proxy for TOM imagery. Structure-from-motion photogrammetric software successfully reconstructed the 3-D form of the ascending ash cloud, as well as surrounding cloud layers. Direct estimates of the precision of the ash cloud height measurements, as well as comparisons between independently processed image sets, indicate that a vertical measurement precision of ~200 m was achieved. Image sets acquired at different times captured the plume dynamics and enabled a mean ascent velocity of 14 m s −1 to be estimated for regions above 7 km. In contrast, the uppermost regions of the column (at a measured cloud top height of ~11 km) were not ascending significantly, enabling us to constrain a 1-D plume ascent model, from which estimates for the vent size (50 m) and eruption mass flux (2.6 × 10 6  kg s −1 ) could be made. Thus, we demonstrate that nanosatellite imagery has the potential for substantially reducing uncertainties in ash dispersion models by providing valuable information on eruptive conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During volcanic eruptions, measurements of the rate at which magma is erupted underpin hazard assessments. For eruptions dominated by the effusion of lava, estimates are often made using satellite data; here, in a case study at Mount Etna (Sicily), we make the first measurements based on terrestrial laser scanning (TLS), and we also include explosive products. During the study period (17-21 July 2012), regular Strombolian explosions were occurring within the Bocca Nuova crater, producing a ~50 m-high scoria cone and a small lava flow field. TLS surveys over multi-day intervals determined a mean cone growth rate (effusive and explosive products) of ~0.24 m3·s-1. Differences between 0.3-m resolution DEMs acquired at 10-minute intervals captured the evolution of a breakout lava flow lobe advancing at 0.01-0.03 m3·s-1. Partial occlusion within the crater prevented similar measurement of the main flow, but integrating TLS data with time-lapse imagery enabled lava viscosity (7.4 × 105 Pa·s) to be derived from surface velocities and, hence, a flux of 0.11 m3·s-1 to be calculated. Total dense rock equivalent magma discharge estimates are ~0.1-0.2 m3·s-1 over the measurement period and suggest that simultaneous estimates from satellite data are somewhat overestimated. Our results support the use of integrated TLS and time-lapse photography for ground-truthing space-based measurements and highlight the value of interactive image analysis when automated approaches, such as particle image velocimetry (PIV), fail. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent developments in low-cost structure-from-motion (SfM) technologies offer new opportunities for geoscientists to acquire high-resolution soil microtopography data at a fraction of the cost of conventional techniques. However, these new methodologies often lack easily accessible error metrics and hence are difficult to evaluate. In this research, a framework was developed to evaluate a SfM approach for soil microtopography measurement through assessment of uncertainty sources and quantification of their potential impact on overall 3D reconstruction. Standard deviations of camera interior orientation parameters estimated from SfM self-calibration within five different soil surface models were several orders of magnitude larger than precisions expected from pattern-based camera calibration. Sensitivity analysis identified the principal point position as the dominant source of calibration-induced uncertainty. Overall, surface elevation values estimated from both technologies were similar in magnitude with a root mean square ( RMS) of elevation difference of 0·2 mm. Nevertheless, the presence of deformation in either SfM or traditional photogrammetric point clouds highlights the importance of quality assurance safeguards (such as a judicious choice of control points) in SfM workflows for soil microtopography applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: We demonstrate the rise and expansion of a gas slug as a fluid dynamic source mechanism for infrasonic signals generated by gas puffing and impulsive explosions at Stromboli. The fluid dynamics behind the rise, expansion and burst of gas slugs in the confines of an experimental tube can be characterised into different regimes. Passive expansion occurs for small gas masses, where negligible dynamic gas over-pressure develops during bubble ascent and, prior to burst, meniscus oscillation forms an important infrasonic source. With increasing gas mass, a transition regime emerges where dynamic gas over-pressure is significant. For larger gas masses, this regime transforms to fully explosive behaviour, where gas over-pressure dominates as an infrasonic source and bubble bursting is not a critical factor. The rate of change of excess pressure in the experimental tube was used to generate synthetic infrasonic waveforms. Qualitatively, the waveforms compare well to infrasonic waveforms measured from a range of eruptions at Stromboli. Assuming pressure continuity during flow through the vent, and applying dimensionless arguments from the first-order experiments, allows estimation of eruption metrics from infrasonic signals measured at Stromboli. Values of bubble length, gas mass and over-pressure calculated from infrasonic signals are in excellent agreement with those derived by independent means for eruptions at Stromboli, therefore providing a method of estimating eruption metrics from infrasonic measurement. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

A rigorous analysis of the timing and location of flank eruptions of Mount Etna on Sicily is important for the creation of hazard maps of the densely populated area surrounding the volcano. In this paper, we analyse the temporal, volumetric and spatial data on eruptive activity on Etna. Our analyses are based on the two most recent and robust historical data catalogues of flank eruption activity on Etna, with one from 1669 to 2008 and the other from 1610 to 2008. We use standard statistical methodology and modelling techniques, though a number of features are new to the analysis of eruption data. Our temporal analysis reveals that flank eruptions on Mount Etna between 1610 and 2008 follow an inhomogeneous Poisson process, with intensity of eruptions increasing nearly linearly since the mid-1900s. Our temporal analysis reveals no evidence of cyclicity over this period. An analysis of volumetric lava flow rates shows a marked increase in activity since 1971. This increase, which coincides with the formation of the Southeast Crater (SEC), appears to be related to increased activity on and around the SEC. This has significant implications for hazard analysis on Etna. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The original version of this article unfortunately contained a mistake. The text accompanying Eq. 3 in the published paper should be corrected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Close-range sensors are employed to observe glaciological processes that operate over short timescales (e.g. iceberg calving, glacial lake outburst floods, diurnal surface melting). However, under poor weather conditions optical instruments fail while the operation of radar systems below 17 GHz do not have sufficient angular resolution to map glacier surfaces in detail. This letter reviews the potential of millimetre-wave radar at 94 GHz to obtain high-resolution 3-D measurements of glaciers under most weather conditions. We discuss the theory of 94 GHz radar for glaciology studies, demonstrate its potential to map a glacier calving front and summarise future research priorities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Relict landforms provide a wealth of information on the evolution of the modern landscape and climate change in the past. To improve understanding of the origin and development of these landforms we need better spatial measurements across a variety of scales. This can be challenging using conventional surveying techniques due to difficulties in landform recognition on the ground (e.g. weak visual/topographic expression) and spatially variable areas of interest. Here we explore the appropriateness of existing remote sensing datasets (aerial LiDAR and aerial photography) and newly acquired unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) imagery of a test site on the upland of Dartmoor in SW England (Leeden Tor) for the recognition and automated mapping of relict patterned ground composed of stripes and polygons. We find that the recognition of these landforms is greatly enhanced by automated mapping using spectral two-dimensional imagery. Image resolution is important, with the recognition of elements (boulders) of <1 m maximised from the highest resolution imagery (UAV red-green-blue (RGB)) and recognition of landforms (10–100 m scale) maximised on coarser resolution aerial imagery. Topographic metrics of these low relief (0.5 m) landforms are best extracted from structure-from-motion (SfM) processed UAV true-colour imagery, and in this context the airborne LiDAR data proved less effective. Integrating automated mapping using spectral attributes and SfM-derived digital surface models from UAV RGB imagery provides a powerful tool for rapid reconnaissance of field sites to facilitate the extraction of meaningful topographic and spatial metrics that can inform on the origin of relict landform features. Care should be given to match the scale of features under consideration to the appropriate scale of datasets available. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peatlands are important reserves of terrestrial carbon and biodiversity, and given that many peatlands across the UK and Europe exist in a degraded state, their conservation is a major area of concern and a focus of considerable research. Aerial surveys are valuable tools for habitat mapping and conservation and provide useful insights into their condition. We investigate how SfM photogrammetry-derived topography and habitat classes may be used to construct an estimate of carbon loss from erosion features in a remote blanket bog habitat. An autonomous, unmanned, aerial, fixed-wing remote sensing platform (Quest UAV 300™) collected imagery over Moor House, in the Upper Teesdale National Nature Reserve, a site with a high degree of peatland erosion. The images were used to generate point clouds into orthomosaics and digital surface models using SfM photogrammetry techniques, georeferenced and subsequently used to classify vegetation and peatland features. A classification of peatbog feature types was developed using a random forest classification model trained on field survey data and applied to UAV-captured products including the orthomosaic, digital surface model and derived surfaces such as topographic index, slope and aspect maps. Using the area classified as eroded peat and the derived digital surface model, we estimated a loss of 438 tonnes of carbon from a single gully. The UAV system was relatively straightforward to deploy in such a remote and unimproved area. SfM photogrammetry, imagery and random forest modelling obtained classification accuracies of between 42% and 100%, and was able to discern between bare peat, saturated bog and sphagnum habitats. This paper shows what can be achieved with low-cost UAVs equipped with consumer grade camera equipment and relatively straightforward ground control, and demonstrates their potential for the carbon and peatland conservation research community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) and structure-from-motion photogrammetry (SfMp) offer rapid, non-invasive surveying of in situ gravels. Numerous studies have used the point clouds derived from TLS or SfMp to quantify surface layer characteristics, but direct comparison of the methods for grain-scale analysis has received relatively little attention to date. Comparing equivalent products of different data capture methods is critical as differences in errors and sampling biases between the two methods may produce different outputs, effecting further analysis. The sampling biases and errors related to SfMp and TLS lead to differences in the point clouds produced by each method. The metrics derived from the point clouds are therefore likely to differ, potentially leading to different inputs for entrainment threshold models, different trends in surface layer development being identified and different trajectories for physical processes and habitat quality being predicted. This paper provides a direct comparison between TLS and SfMp surveys of an exposed gravel bar for three different survey periods following inundation and reworking of the bar surface during high flow events. The point clouds derived from the two methods are used to describe changes in the character of the surface layer between bar inundation events, and comparisons are made with descriptions derived from conventional pebble counts. The results found differences in the metrics derived using each method do exist, but the grid resolution used to detrend the surfaces and identify spatial variations in surface layer characteristics had a greater impact than survey method. Further research is required to understand the significance of these variations for quantifying surface texture and structure and for predicting entrainment thresholds and transport rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An editorial is presented which discusses article related to photogrammetry in geography and the geosciences. Topics discussed include photogrammetry, a technique by which volumetric information describing surface structures; Structure from motion (FM) photogrammetry uses advances in computer vision algorithms; and conclude by evidencing the various ways in which SfM photogrammetric methods offer other advantages over terrestrial laser scanning for such applications.

Digital photogrammetry has experienced rapid development regarding the technology involved and its ease of use over the past two decades. We revisit the work of Jim Chandler who in 1999 published a technical communication seeking to familiarise novice users of photogrammetric methods with important theoretical concepts and practical considerations. In doing so, we assess considerations such as camera calibration and the need for photo-control and check points, as they apply to modern software and workflows, in particular for structure-from-motion (SfM) photogrammetry. We also highlight the implications of lightweight drones being the new platform of choice for many photogrammetry-based studies in the geosciences. Finally, we present three examples based on our own work, showing the opportunities that SfM photogrammetry offers at different scales and systems: at the micro-scale for monitoring geomorphological change, and at the meso-scale for hydrological modelling and the reconstruction of vegetation canopies. Our examples showcase developments and applications of photogrammetry which go beyond what was considered feasible 20 years ago and indicate future directions that applications may take. Nevertheless, we demonstrate that, in-line with Chandler's recommendations, the pre-calibration of consumer-grade cameras, instead of relying entirely on self-calibration by software, can yield palpable benefits in micro-scale applications and that measurements of sufficient control points are still central to generating reproducible, high-accuracy products. With the unprecedented ease of use and wide areas of application, scientists applying photogrammetric methods would do well to remember basic considerations and seek methods for the validation of generated products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Structure-from-motion (SfM) photogrammetry techniques are now widely available to generate digital terrain models (DTMs) from optical imagery, providing an alternative to costlier options such as LiDAR or satellite surveys. SfM could be a useful tool in hazard studies because its minimal cost makes it accessible even in developing regions and its speed of use can provide updated data rapidly in hazard-prone regions. Our study is designed to assess whether crowd-sourced SfM data is comparable to an industry standard LiDAR dataset, demonstrating potential real-world use of SfM if employed for disaster risk reduction purposes. Three groups with variable SfM knowledge utilized 16 different camera models, including four camera phones, to collect 1001 total photos in one hour of data collection. Datasets collected by each group were processed using VisualSFM, and the point densities, accuracies and distributions of points in the resultant point clouds (DTM skeletons) were compared. Our results show that the point clouds are resilient to inconsistency in users' SfM knowledge: crowd-sourced data collected by a moderately informed general public yields topography results comparable in data density and accuracy to those produced with data collected by highly-informed SfM users or experts using LiDAR. This means that in a real-world scenario involving participants with a diverse range of expertise, topography models could be produced from crowd-sourced data quite rapidly and to a very high standard. This could be beneficial to disaster risk reduction as a relatively quick, simple and low-cost method to attain rapidly updated knowledge of terrain attributes, useful for the prediction and mitigation of many natural hazards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Piton de la Fournaise is one of the world's most active and visited volcanoes. Its summit crater (Cratère Dolomieu), the main tourist attraction, underwent a major caldera collapse in 2007 and its rim is not yet stabilized. In order to assess the caldera rim instability risk for visitors, we followed its structural evolution from 2007 to 2015. Using aerial photogrammetry campaigns, we mapped the unstable sites very precisely, carried out a quantitative analysis of the temporal evolution of these instabilities, and assessed the risks for visitors. Considering the 2008–2015 period, four sites close to the crater's edge showed significant horizontal ground motion (0.5–2 m), fracture widening (average of 0.3–0.56 m) and large-scale mass wasting volumes (total of 1.8±0.1 × 106 m3). We infer two different processes at work: (1) to the west and north, toppling of the basalt units occurs after periods of fracture widening due to the combined effect of magmatic intrusions and long-term inflation/deflation cycles; (2) to the south and east, parts of the caldera rim slowly slide towards the caldera centre, with significant accelerations during periods of enhanced volcanic activity (in 2008–2010 and 2014–2015). The official observation platform is the most stable zone to overlook the Cratère Dolomieu. By contrast, the most frequently visited area of the rim (northwest) outside the official platform is also the most unstable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Structure from Motion (SfM) is a tool being increasingly utilised in geosciences for high-resolution three-dimensional mapping of landscapes. However, a number of authors have demonstrated that broad-scale systematic deformations, in the form of 'doming' and 'bowling', can occur when applied to linear (low-amplitude, feature-limited) topographies. In such contexts, a more rigorous lens calibration and ground control point acquisition process is required, which means that application of SfM to environments such as tidal flats or desert plains can be challenging. Uncertainties in elevation models generated through SfM were investigated here in the context of the low elevation, micro-topographic environment of saltmarsh. Eight digital surface models (DSMs) were generated for a saltmarsh site in the Deben Estuary (Suffolk, UK) using imagery acquired by a low-cost consumer grade unmanned aerial system (UAS). The results provide clear illustration of the systematic bowling effect following self-calibration during bundle adjustment. This was due to poor estimations of distortion parameters in the camera model. Deformation was most pronounced when UAS-GPS data were used for georeferencing. The use of dGPS-determined ground control points improved the DSM, but did not fully mitigate the deformations. By introducing a pre-calibrated model, derived using a typical checkerboard routine, deformation was significantly mitigated. These results were tested in both the commercial Agisoft PhotoScan® and open-source Micmac software. When self-calibration was used, Micmac generated significantly more accurate DSMs because a more complex lens distortion model could be implemented. The results show that when mapping flat topographies, pre-calibration of the camera model out-performs self-calibration. However, if pre-calibration is not possible, a complex distortion model (such as Micmac's Four model) can be utilised to limit deformation. The results of the software analysis concluded there is no one-size fits all software solution, and therefore customisable open-source systems offer many potential benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Silicic volcanic eruptions commonly begin with the explosive ejection of pyroclastic material, before transitioning to gentler effusion-dominated activity. Well-exposed dissected silicic systems are scarce and poorly studied, hindering the advances in our understanding of the explosive–effusive transition needed to improve interpretations of volcanic unrest and hazard forecasting. The Mule Creek vent (New Mexico, USA) is a dissected silicic conduit that records the processes controlling conduit formation and evolution, and the role tuffisites (fractures filled with variably welded pyroclasts) play in conduit dynamics. Here, we use decimeter-scale photo-mapping of lithostratigraphic units and thin section analysis to differentiate and interpret three dominant emplacement styles during vent evolution. First, there was repeated deposition and erosion of pyroclastic material at the conduit walls, recorded by erosive surfaces in pyroclastic breccia and agglomerates at the conduit margins. Second, sub-vertical domains of dense melt-dominated magma were emplaced and preserved as glass-dominated vitrophyre and brecciated vitrophyre, with the textural hallmarks of assembly from welding of pyroclasts. Finally, the sub-horizontal fracturing of previously deposited lithologies produced laterally cross-cutting tuffisites. The vent deposits track the widening and then narrowing of the conduit through time and reflect progressive insulation and generally higher temperatures towards the conduit center as pyroclasts accumulate. Welding of pyroclastic fill and the formation of dense vitrophyres towards the conduit center lowers deposit porosity and effective wall permeability. This drives localized gas pressure increases and results in gas-driven fracturing, generating tuffisites, which act as transient outgassing pathways. The structure of the Mule Creek vent records an explosive–effusive transition, constraining the processes controlling conduit evolution and aiding our interpretation of volcanic unrest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Viscosity is one of the most important physical properties controlling lava flow dynamics. Usually, viscosity is measured in the laboratory where key parameters can be controlled but can never reproduce the natural environment and original state of the lava in terms of crystal and bubble contents, dissolved volatiles, and oxygen fugacity. The most promising approach for quantifying the rheology of molten lava in its natural state is therefore to carry out direct field measurements by inserting a viscometer into the lava while it is flowing. Such in-situ syn-eruptive viscosity measurements are notoriously difficult to perform due to the lack of appropriate instrumentation and the difficulty of working on or near an active lava flow. In the field, rotational viscometer measurements are of particular value as they have the potential to measure the properties of the flow interior rather than an integration of the viscosity of the viscoelastic crust + flow interior. To our knowledge only one field rotational viscometer is available, but logistical constraints have meant that it has not been used for 20 yr. Here, we describe new viscosity measurements made using the refurbished version of this custom-built rotational viscometer, as performed on active pāhoehoe lobes from the 61G lava flow of Kilauea's Pu'u ‘Ō‘ō eruption in 2016. We successfully measured a viscosity of ∼380 Pa s at strain-rates between 1.6 and 5 s −1 and at 1144 °C. Additionally, synchronous lava sampling allowed us to provide detailed textural and chemical characterization of quenched samples. Application of current physico-chemical models based on this characterization (16 ± 4 vol.% crystals; 50 ± 6 vol.% vesicles), gave viscosity estimates that were approximately compatible with the measured values, highlighting the sensitivity of model-based viscosity estimates on the effect of deformable bubbles. Our measurements also agree on the range of viscosities in comparison to previous field experiments on Hawaiian lavas. Conversely, direct comparison with sub-liquidus rheological laboratory measurements on natural lavas was unsuccessful because recreating field conditions (in particular volatile and bubble content) is so far inaccessible in the laboratory. Our work shows the value of field rotational viscometry fully-integrated with sample characterization to quantify three-phase lava viscosity. Finally, this work suggests the need for the development of a more versatile instrument capable of recording precise measurements at low torque and low strain rate, and with synchronous temperature measurements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The interpretation of geophysical measurements at active volcanoes is vital for hazard assessment and for understanding fundamental processes such as magma degassing. For Strombolian activity, interpretations are currently underpinned by first-order fluid dynamic models which give relatively straightforward relationships between geophysical signals and gas and magma flow. However, recent petrological and high-speed video evidence has indicated the importance of rheological stratification within the conduit and, here, we show that under these conditions, the straightforward relationships break down. Using laboratory analogue experiments to represent a rheologically-stratified conduit we characterise the distinct variations in the shear stress exerted on the upper sections of the flow tube and in the gas pressures measured above the liquid surface, during different degassing flow configurations. These signals, generated by varying styles of gas ascent, expansion and burst, can reflect field infrasonic measurements and ground motion proximal to a vent. The shear stress signals exhibit timescales and trends in qualitative agreement with the near-vent inflation–deflation cycles identified at Stromboli. Therefore, shear stress along the uppermost conduit may represent a plausible source of near-vent tilt, and conduit shear contributions should be considered in the interpretation of ground deformation, which is usually attributed to pressure sources only. The same range of flow processes can produce different experimental infrasonic waveforms, even for similar masses of gas escape. The experimental data resembled infrasonic waveforms acquired from different vents at Stromboli associated with different eruptive styles. Accurate interpretation of near-vent ground deformation, infrasonic signal and eruptive style therefore requires detailed understanding of: a) spatiotemporal magma rheology in the shallow conduit, and b) shallow conduit geometry, as well as bubble overpressure and volume. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aerial image capture has become very common within the geosciences due to the increasing affordability of low-payload (<20 kg) unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for consumer markets. Their application to surveying has subsequently led to many studies being undertaken using UAV imagery and derived products as primary data sources. However, image quality and the principles of image capture are seldom given rigorous discussion. In this contribution we firstly revisit the underpinning concepts behind image capture, from which the requirements for acquiring sharp, well-exposed and suitable image data are derived. Secondly, the platform, camera, lens and imaging settings relevant to image quality planning are discussed, with worked examples to guide users through the process of considering the factors required for capturing high-quality imagery for geoscience investigations. Given a target feature size and ground sample distance based on mission objectives, the flight height and velocity should be calculated to ensure motion blur is kept to a minimum. We recommend using a camera with as large a sensor as is permissible for the aerial platform being used (to maximise sensor sensitivity), effective focal lengths of 24-35 mm (to minimise errors due to lens distortion) and optimising ISO (to ensure the shutter speed is fast enough to minimise motion blur). Finally, we give recommendations for the reporting of results by researchers in order to help improve the confidence in, and reusability of, surveys through providing open access imagery where possible, presenting example images and excerpts and detailing appropriate metadata to rigorously describe the image capture process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Structure-from-motion (SfM) algorithms greatly facilitate the generation of 3-D topographic models from photographs and can form a valuable component of hazard monitoring at active volcanic domes. However, model generation from visible imagery can be prevented due to poor lighting conditions or surface obscuration by degassing. Here, we show that thermal images can be used in a SfM workflow to mitigate these issues and provide more continuous time-series data than visible-light equivalents. We demonstrate our methodology by producing georeferenced photogrammetric models from 30 near-monthly overflights of the lava dome that formed at Volcán de Colima (Mexico) between 2013 and 2015. Comparison of thermal models with equivalents generated from visible-light photographs from a consumer digital single lens reflex (DSLR) camera suggests that, despite being less detailed than their DSLR counterparts, the thermal models are more than adequate reconstructions of dome geometry, giving volume estimates within 10% of those derived using the DSLR. Significantly, we were able to construct thermal models in situations where degassing and poor lighting prevented the construction of models from DSLR imagery, providing substantially better data continuity than would have otherwise been possible. We conclude that thermal photogrammetry provides a useful new tool for monitoring effusive volcanic activity and assessing associated volcanic risks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Volcanic plumes pose a hazard to health and society and a particular risk for aviation. Hazard mitigation relies on forecasting plume dispersion within the atmosphere over time. The accuracy of forecasts depends on our understanding of particle dispersion and sedimentation processes, as well as on the accuracy of model input parameters, such as the initial particle size distribution and concentrations of volcanic particles (i.e., volcanic ash) in the atmosphere. However, our understating of these processes and the accurate quantification of input parameters remain the main sources of uncertainty in plume dispersion modeling. It is usually impractical to sample volcanic plumes directly, but particle sedimentation can be constrained in the laboratory. Here, we describe the design of a new experimental apparatus for investigating the dynamics of free-falling volcanic particles. The apparatus can produce a sustained column of falling particles with variable particle concentrations appropriate to a volcanic plume. Controllable experimental parameters include particle size distributions, types, and release rates. A laser-illuminated macrophotography system allows imaging of in-flight particles and their interactions. The mass of landing particles is logged to inform deposition rates. Quantitative measurements include particle morphology characterization, settling velocities, flow rates, and estimation of concentrations. Simultaneous observations of particle interaction processes and settling dynamics through direct control over a wide range of parameters will improve our parameterization of volcanic plume dynamics. Although the apparatus has been specifically designed for volcanological investigations, it can also be used to explore the characteristics of free-falling particle columns occurring in both environmental and industrial settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A detailed understanding of pāhoehoe emplacement is necessary for developing accurate models of flow field development, assessing hazards, and interpreting the significance of lava morphology on Earth and other planetary surfaces. Active pāhoehoe lobes on Kīlauea Volcano, Hawai'i, were examined on 21–26 February 2006 using oblique time series stereo-photogrammetry and differential global positioning system measurements. During this time, the local discharge rate for peripheral lava lobes was generally constant at 0.0061 ± 0.0019 m 3/s, but the areal coverage rate of the lobes exhibited a periodic increase every 4.13 ± 0.64 min. This periodicity is attributed to the time required for the pressure within the liquid lava core to exceed the cooling-induced strength of its margins. The pāhoehoe flow advanced through a series of down-slope and cross-slope breakouts, which began as ∼0.2-m-thick units (i.e., toes) that coalesced and inflated to become approximately meter-thick lobes. The lobes were thickest above the lowest points of the initial topography and above shallow to reverse-facing slopes, defined relative to the local flow direction. The flow path was typically controlled by high-standing topography, with the zone directly adjacent to the final lobe margin having an average relief that was a few centimeters higher than the lava-inundated region. This suggests that toe-scale topography can, at least temporarily, exert strong controls on pāhoehoe flow paths by impeding the lateral spreading of the lobe. Observed cycles of enhanced areal spreading and inflated lobe morphology are also explored using a model that considers the statistical likelihood of sequential breakouts from active flow margins and the effects of topographic barriers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The deformation style of active volcanoes can provide insight into the structural evolution of their edifices, volcanic activity and associated hazards. The Somma‐Vesuvius volcano is considered one of the most dangerous on the planet due to its proximity to the megacity of Naples (Southern Italy). Thus, understanding its deformation style and corresponding long‐term structural evolution are critical aspects for risk reduction. Although a large amount of data has already been collected about Somma‐Vesuvius, the deformation style affecting its volcanic edifice is still debated. Therefore, we devised an integrated approach to clarify the current state of deformation of this volcano. In particular, we combined analog experiments and finite element (FE) modeling to constrain the current deformation style affecting Somma‐Vesuvius and determine the physical parameters controlling its structural evolution. The analog models were built at a scale of 1:100,000 using sand mixtures (brittle analog) and polydimethylsiloxane (ductile analog). The FE models were implemented by considering a three‐dimensional time‐dependent fluid‐dynamic approach performed at both the analog model scale (1:100,000) and actual volcano scale (1:1). We obtained an FE model and a corresponding analog one that faithfully reproduced the observed deformation velocity patterns revealed by differential interferometric synthetic aperture radar (DInSAR) and GPS measurements at Somma‐Vesuvius. Overall, our results support the hypothesis that a combined gravitational spreading‐sagging process governs the deformation style of Somma‐Vesuvius. Plain Language Summary: Volcanic edifices of sufficient mass are capable of deforming substrata under their own weight; this deformation in turn can deform the volcanic edifices themselves. Identifying the deformation style characterizing a volcanic edifice is useful when considering the evolution of its volcanic activity. Vesuvius is considered one of the most dangerous volcanoes on the planet due to its proximity to the megacity of Naples (Southern Italy). Thus, understanding its deformation style and corresponding structural evolution are critical aspects for risk reduction. In order to analyze the deformation process of Vesuvius we used two different modeling techniques: analog modeling and Finite Element numerical modeling. The analog modeling approach allows us to reproduce real processes by using scaled models and media considered analog to natural materials under a physical point of view. The combination of analog and numerical modeling allowed us to constrain the current deformation style affecting Somma‐Vesuvius and to determine the physical parameters controlling its structural evolution. Finally, we compared our results with the observed deformation velocity patterns revealed by Differential Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar and GPS measurements at Vesuvius. Overall, the results support the hypothesis that a combined gravitational spreading‐sagging process governs the deformation style of Somma‐Vesuvius. Key Points: Analog and numerical modeling highlighted an active spreading‐sagging process at the Somma‐Vesuvius volcanoA comparison of models with differential interferometric synthetic aperture radar (DInSAR) deformation data validated the modeling proceduresThe spreading process affecting the Vesuvius volcano allowed inferring about the near‐future eruption style [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Magma degassing can trigger crystal growth by increasing the magma liquidus temperature. As crystallization greatly increases magma viscosity, this process can strongly influence eruptive dynamics. We use a microscope and heated stage to obtain the first direct observations of degassing-driven crystal growth in natural basaltic melts at magmatic temperatures. Samples from Mount Etna, Italy (0.39 wt% H2O), and Kilauea volcano, Hawaii (0.18 wt% H2O) were heated in air at 1 bar, and held isothermally for 0.5-17 h between 1190 °C and 1270 °C, before cooling to solidus temperatures. On heating, bubble growth at >900 °C indicated volatile exsolution. In the hydrous Etna sample, isothermal conditions produced numerous new plagioclase crystals that grew to =160 µm at maximum rates of 5.2-18 x 10-6 cm s-1. Growth rates and crystal morphologies (tabular to spherulitic) depended on dwell temperature. Growth slowed dramatically after 20 min as equilibrium was approached. In the H2O-poor Kilauea sample, few new crystals appeared; they grew at maximum rates of 1.7-6.5 x 10-6 cm s-1. On cooling, crystal nucleation and growth were strongly influenced by preexisting crystal textures, highlighting the importance of studying natural samples. Our results document rapid crystal growth triggered by melt devolatilization when the H2O content of the glass is sufficiently high. Resultant swift, substantial changes in magma texture are a key control on lava rheology at Etna and elsewhere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Gravitational volcano spreading is caused by flow of weak substrata due to volcanic loading, and is now a process known to affect many edifices. The process produces extension in the upper edifice, evidenced by gräben and normal faults, and compression at the base, seen in strike–slip faults and thrusts. Where spreading is identified, host volcanoes have a range of fault densities, variable rift and gräben shapes, and different degrees of structural asymmetry. Previous studies have suggested a link between edifice shape and structure and the proportion of brittle to ductile material in the substrata or lower edifice. We study this link using refined sand cone analogue models standing on a brittle–ductile/sand–silicone substrata. Two scenarios have been investigated, the first mainly represents oceanic volcanoes with a ductile layer within the edifice (type I), where there is an outer ductile free surface. The second represents most continental volcanoes that have ductile substrata (type II). We apply the model results to natural examples and develop quantitative relationships between slope, brittle–ductile ratio fault density, spreading rate and structural style. Displacement fields calculated from stereophotogrammetry show significant differences between different slope models. We find that more faults are produced when the cone is initially steeper, or when the brittle substratum is thinner. However, the effect of the brittle layer dominates over that of slope. The strike–slip movements are found to be an essential feature in the spreading mechanism and the gräben are in fact transtensional features. Strike–slip and graben faults make a conjugate flower pattern. The structures produced are well-organised for type II edifices, but they are poorly organised for type I models. Type I models represent good analogues for oceanic volcanoes that are commonly affected by large slumps bounded by an extensional zone and lack of well-formed sector gräben. The well-observed connection between oceanic volcano rifts and large landslide-slumps is confirmed to be a consequence of spreading. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Bubble nucleation and growth dynamics exert a primary control on the explosivity of volcanic eruptions. Numerous theoretical and experimental studies aim to capture the complex process of melt vesiculation, whereas textural studies use vesicle populations to reconstruct magma behaviour. However, post-fragmentation vesiculation in rhyolitic bombs can create final quenched bubble (vesicle) textures that are not representative of the nature of fragmenting magma within the conduit. To examine bubble growth in hydrous rhyolitic bombs, we have used heated stage microscopy to directly observe vesiculation of a Chaitén rhyolite melt (with an initial dissolved water content of ~0.95 wt %) at atmospheric pressure and magmatic temperatures upon reheating. Thin wafers of obsidian were held from 5 min up to two days in the heated stage at temperatures between 575 °C and 875 °C. We found that bubble growth rates, measured through changes in bubble diameter, increased with both temperature and bubble size. The average growth rate at the highest temperature of 875 °C is ~1.27 μm s−1, which is substantially faster than the lowest detected growth rate of ~0.02 μm s−1 at 725 °C; below this temperature no growth was observed. Average growth rate V r follows an exponential relationship with temperature, T and inferred melt viscosity η , where V r = 5.57 × 10−7e0.016 T and V r = 3270e−1.117 η . Several stages of evolving bubble morphology were directly observed, including initial relaxation of deformed bubbles into spheres, extensive growth of spheres, and, at higher temperatures, close packing and foam formation. Bubble deformation due to bubble-bubble interaction and coalescence was observed in most experiments. We use our simple, experimentally-determined relationship between melt viscosity and bubble growth rates to model post-fragmentation vesicle growth in a cooling 1 m-diameter rhyolitic bomb. The results, which indicate negligible vesicle growth within 2–3 cm of the bomb surface, correspond well with the observed dense margin thickness of a Chaitén bomb of comparable dimensions. The experiments described can be used to effectively reconstruct the post-fragmentation vesiculation history of bombs through simple analytical expressions which provide a useful tool for aiding in the interpretation of pumiceous endmember textures in hydrous rhyolitic bombs. • Suite of high temperature bubble growth experiments performed on a rhyolitic bomb from the 2008 eruption of Chaitén volcano. • Hot-stage microscopy allowed the tracing of in-situ bubble growth at different temperatures. • Bubble growth rates placed in context of a cooling volcanic bomb to determine the amount of post-fragmentation vesiculation. • Our model recreates textures observed in metre scale volcanic bombs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• UAV-SfM soil loss measurements were validated by direct sediment collection. • Photogrammetric precision estimates defined spatially variable levels of detection. • DEMs of difference illustrated the diffuse erosion patterns through time. • Accurate 3-D soil surface models were constructed from UAV-SfM data. Sheet erosion is common on agricultural lands, and understanding the dynamics of the erosive process as well as the quantification of soil loss is important for both soil scientists and managers. However, measuring rates of soil loss from sheet erosion has proved difficult due to requiring the detection of relatively small surface changes over extended areas. Consequently, such measurements have relied on the use of erosion plots, which have limited spatial coverage and have high operating costs. For measuring the larger erosion rates characteristic of rill and gully erosion, structure-from-motion (SfM) photogrammetry has been demonstrated to be a valuable tool. Here, we demonstrate the first direct validation of UAV-SfM measurements of sheet erosion using sediment collection data collected from erosion plots. Three erosion plots (12 m × 4 m) located at Lavras, Brazil, with bare soil exposed to natural rainfall from which event sediment and runoff was monitored, were mapped during two hydrological years (2016 and 2017), using a UAV equipped with a RGB camera. DEMs of difference (DoD) were calculated to detect spatial changes in the soil surface topography over time and to quantify the volumes of sediments lost or gained. Precision maps were generated to enable precision estimates for both DEMs to be propagated into the DoD as spatially variable vertical uncertainties. The point clouds generated from SfM gave mean errors of ~2.4 mm horizontally (xy) and ~1.9 mm vertically (z) on control and independent check points, and the level of detection (LoD) along the plots ranged from 1.4 mm to 7.4 mm. The soil loss values obtained by SfM were significantly (p < 0.001) correlated (r2 = 95.55%) with those derived from the sediment collection. These results open up the possibility to use SfM for erosion studies where channelized erosion is not the principal mechanism, offering a cost-effective method for gaining new insights into sheet, and interrill, erosion processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Supraglacial lake drainage events influence Greenland Ice Sheet dynamics on hourly to interannual timescales. However, direct observations are rare, and, to date, no in situ studies exist from fast-flowing sectors of the ice sheet. Here, we present observations of a rapid lake drainage event at Store Glacier, west Greenland, in 2018. The drainage event transported 4.8 x 106 m³ of meltwater to the glacier bed in ~5 h, reducing the lake to a third of its original volume. During drainage, the local ice surface rose by 0.55 m, and surface velocity increased from 2.0 m⋅d-1 to 5.3 m⋅d-1. Dynamic responses were greatest ~4 km downstream from the lake, which we interpret as an area of transient water storage constrained by basal topography. Drainage initiated, without any precursory trigger, when the lake expanded and reactivated a preexisting fracture that had been responsible for a drainage event 1 y earlier. Since formation, this fracture had advected ~500 m from the lake's deepest point, meaning the lake did not fully drain. Partial drainage events have previously been assumed to occur slowly via lake overtopping, with a comparatively small dynamic influence. In contrast, our findings show that partial drainage events can be caused by hydrofracture, producing new hydrological connections that continue to concentrate the supply of surface meltwater to the bed of the ice sheet throughout the melt season. Our findings therefore indicate that the quantity and resultant dynamic influence of rapid lake drainages are likely being underestimated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present the evolution over 3 months of a 2016–2017 pāhoehoe flow at Kīlauea as it changed from a narrow sheet flow into a compound lava field fed by a stable system of tubes. The portion of the flow located on Kīlauea's coastal plain was characterized using helicopter‐based visible and thermal structure‐from‐motion photogrammetry to construct a series of georeferenced digital surface models and thermal maps on eight different days. Results reveal key influences on the emplacement and evolution of such long‐lived pāhoehoe flows. This region of the flow grew by ~12 × 106 m3 with a near‐constant time‐average discharge rate of 1.2–2.7 m3/s. The development of two tube systems is captured and shows an initial nascent tube enhanced by a narrow topographic confinement, which later inflated and created a topographic inversion that modulated the emplacement of a second flow lobe with its own tube system. The analysis of breakouts at various stages of the field's life suggests that the evolution of the thermal and morphological properties of the flow surface reflect its maturity. Thermal properties of breakouts were used to expand the empirical relationship of breakout cooling to longer timescales. This study contributes to the long‐term development and validation of more accurate predictive models for pāhoehoe, required during the management of long‐lasting lava flow crises in Hawai'i and elsewhere. Key Points: We document the first 3 months of a pāhoehoe flow, from its initial crust‐free channel into a compound field fed by a tube systemVisible and thermal aerial images describe the evolution of the morphology and surface temperature of the flow at various datesResults capture the relationship with topography and the partitioning of lava between the flow front, lateral breakouts, and flow inflation [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recent growth in popularity of photogrammetry for geoscientific studies has largely been driven by the development of Structure from Motion (SfM) algorithms. Their use require relatively low levels of technical expertise for the production of three dimensional point data that can subsequently be used as a primary data source. While much research has gone into optimising camera network design and parameterisation of the SfM process, little attention has been given factors associated with image collection and processing which will impact the image data. This research details the effect of image compression and, specifically, the impact of images acquired in the standard JPEG format with varying levels of compression on the SfM workflow. JPEG compression is categorized by how aggressively portions of the image are quantized by lookup tables using a metric known as 'quality'.This research investigates the impact of image compression within an SfM photogrammetry workflow, quantitatively assessing photogrammetric outputs. To do this, two field surveys were undertaken in Norfolk, UK, where over 5000 images were captured using a Nikon D700 camera and Nikkor 35 mm lens to test a range of image compression scenarios on photogrammetric outputs. These were recorded in the Nikon NEF RAW file format before lossless compression to 16-bit uncompressed TIFF files. Contemporaneously, a control network was surveyed using a Leica total station data (TCR-805; estimated 3 mm distance accuracy) and a further point cloud was captured with a Leica terrestrial laser scanner (P40, estimated 3 mm 1-sigma accuracy).We find that JPEG compression degrades photogrammetric results, and should not be used when accuracy is a high priority. For JPEG images produced at low levels of compression (compression 'quality' 92; typical default JPEG compression), an increase of 4.3 % in median cloud-cloud error is observed when compared to the TIFF image files. Point count is also reduced, though only slightly, with the TIFF image files producing 1 % more points. Increasing compression to a 'quality' of 50 (similar to Nikon 'basic image' compression) increases this error to 13.2 % when compared with the TIFF image files. Point count is also decreased, with the clouds containing 7.5 % less points than those produced from the TIFF image files. Whilst these results are scene-dependant, a trend in degradation of photogrammetric products with increased compression is evident across all imagery analysed within this experiment. We conclude that image compression and data handling are important considerations within the SfM workflow and consequently RAW image data should be required for use within photogrammetric workflows where possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This contribution reviews the use of modern 3D photo-based surface reconstruction techniques for high fidelity surveys of trenches, rock exposures and hand specimens to highlight their potential for paleoseismology and structural geology. We outline the general approach to data acquisition and processing using ground-based photographs acquired from standard DSLR cameras, and illustrate the use of similar processing approaches on imagery from Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). It is shown that digital map and trench data can be acquired at ultra-high resolution and in much shorter time intervals than would be normally achievable through conventional grid mapping. The resulting point clouds and textured models are inherently multidimensional ( x , y , z , point orientation, colour, texture), archival and easily transformed into orthorectified photomosaics or digital elevation models (DEMs). We provide some examples for the use of such techniques in structural geology and paleoseismology while pointing the interested reader to free and commercial software packages for data processing, visualization and 3D interpretation. Photogrammetric models serve to act as an ideal electronic repository for critical outcrops and observations, similar to the electronic lab book approach employed in the biosciences. This paper also highlights future possibilities for rapid semi-automatic to automatic interpretation of the data and advances in technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In June 2011, an eruption of rhyolite magma began at the Puyehue–Cordón Caulle volcanic complex, southern Chile. By January 2012, explosive activity had declined from sustained pyroclastic (Plinian to sub-Plinian) fountaining to mixed gas and ash jetting punctuated by Vulcanian blasts. This explosive activity was accompanied by synchronous effusion of obsidian lava in a hybrid explosive–effusive eruption. Fortuitous climatic conditions permitted ground-based observation and video recording of transient vent dynamics as well as real-time collection of proximal juvenile ash as it sedimented from the active plume. The main eruptive vent complex and site of lava effusion were represented by two loci of Vulcanian blasts within a single tephra cone containing a pancake-shaped proto-lava dome. These blast loci each consisted of clusters of sub-vents that expressed correlated shifts in eruption intensity, indicating the presence of partially connected and/or branching zones of high permeability within the upper conduit. Pyroclast textures were examined by X-ray computed microtomography and their permeability was modelled by lattice Boltzmann simulations. The porosity (39 to 67%) and Darcian permeability (3.1×10−15 m2 perpendicular to fabric to 3.8×10−11 m2 parallel to fabric) of fine ash emitted during ash jetting indicate that the permeable zones comprised highly sheared, tube-like bubbly magma, and contrast with the low porosity (~17%) and nul permeability of bombs ejected to hundreds of metres from the vent in Vulcanian blasts. Residual H2O content of ash (0.14wt.%) and two bombs (0.2–0.25wt.%), determined by Karl–Fischer titration indicate degassing of this pyroclastic material to near-atmospheric pressures. Ash textures and simple degassing/vesiculation models indicate the onset of permeability by ductile processes of shear-enhanced bubble coalescence in the upper 1 to 1.5km of the conduit. Repeated ash jetting and Vulcanian blasts indicate that such ductile processes were not sufficiently effective to accommodate all degassing requirements, and additional brittle (e.g., fragmentation) events transiently assisted in maintaining an open-system degassing regime that permitted long-lived, hybrid explosive–effusive activity. The eruption at Cordón Caulle has provided an excellent opportunity to closely observe key processes of silicic volcanism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research provides an overview of the large-scale physical model experiments conducted at the Canal d'Investigaciò i Esperimentaciò Mar‘ıtima, Laboratori d'Enginyeria Mar‘ıtima, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, within the EU-Hydralab III Integrated Infrastructure Initiative. The model tests have been carried out in a flume with a sandy dune exposed to a combination of water levels and wave conditions. Different regimes of wave attacks on the sandy beach/dune system were investigated. In particular, the study provides a unique set of large-scale physical data concerning the wave-induced dune overwash. Measurements of velocities, sediment concentrations and beach–dune profile evolutions were considered. The profile measurements have been used to calibrate and validate a numerical model predicting the beach–dune profile modifications over the near-shore region. The numerical model compares well with the experimental data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Open-access geodatabase and web-map has been created for soil erosion community. • Of the records held within the geodatabase (1566) 41.5% report presence of erosion. • Median erosion rate on arable land was 0 t ha−1 yr−1, maximum was 91.7 t ha−1 yr−1. • Existing data do not describe national-scale soil erosion rates due to biases in data. • Criteria presented for future replicable, comparable and robust studies. Accelerated soil erosion can result in substantial declines in soil fertility and has devastating environmental impacts. Consequently, understanding if rates of soil erosion are acceptable is of local and global importance. Herein we use empirical soil erosion observations collated into an open access geodatabase to identify the extent to which existing data and methodological approaches can be used to develop an empirically-derived understanding of soil erosion in the UK (by way of an example). The findings indicate that whilst mean erosion rates in the UK are low, relative to the rest of Europe for example, 16% of observations on arable land were greater than the supposedly tolerable rate of 1 t ha−1 yr−1 and maximum erosion rates were as high as 91.7 t ha−1 yr−1. However, the analysis highlights a skew in existing studies towards locations with a known erosion likelihood and methods that are biased towards single erosion pathways, rather than an all-inclusive study of erosion rates and processes. Accordingly, we suggest that future soil erosion research and policy must address these issues if an accurate assessment of soil erosion rates at the national-scale are to be established. The interactive geodatabase published alongside this paper offers a platform for the simultaneous development of soil erosion research, formulation of effective policy and better protection of soil resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the increasing role that unmanned aerial systems (UAS) are playing in data collection for environmental studies, two key challenges relate to harmonizing and providing standardized guidance for data collection, and also establishing protocols that are applicable across a broad range of environments and conditions. In this context, a network of scientists are cooperating within the framework of the Harmonious Project to develop and promote harmonized mapping strategies and disseminate operational guidance to ensure best practice for data collection and interpretation. The culmination of these efforts is summarized in the present manuscript. Through this synthesis study, we identify the many interdependencies of each step in the collection and processing chain, and outline approaches to formalize and ensure a successful workflow and product development. Given the number of environmental conditions, constraints, and variables that could possibly be explored from UAS platforms, it is impractical to provide protocols that can be applied universally under all scenarios. However, it is possible to collate and systematically order the fragmented knowledge on UAS collection and analysis to identify the best practices that can best ensure the streamlined and rigorous development of scientific products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]