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Complex structural variations (cxSVs) are often overlooked in genome analyses due to detection challenges. We developed ARC-SV, a probabilistic and machine-learning-based method that enables accurate detection and reconstruction of cxSVs from standard datasets. By applying ARC-SV across 4,262 genomes representing all continental populations, we identified cxSVs as a significant source of natural human genetic variation. Rare cxSVs have a propensity to occur in neural genes and loci that underwent rapid human-specific evolution, including those regulating corticogenesis. By performing single-nucleus multiomics in postmortem brains, we discovered cxSVs associated with differential gene expression and chromatin accessibility across various brain regions and cell types. Additionally, cxSVs detected in brains of psychiatric cases are enriched for linkage with psychiatric GWAS risk alleles detected in the same brains. Furthermore, our analysis revealed significantly decreased brain-region- and cell-type-specific expression of cxSV genes, specifically for psychiatric cases, implicating cxSVs in the molecular etiology of major neuropsychiatric disorders. [Display omitted] • ARC-SV uses machine learning on pangenomes to detect cxSVs with high accuracy • Rare cxSVs in the human population are enriched in neural genes • Rare cxSVs are enriched in loci that underwent rapid human-specific evolution • cxSVs contribute to the genetic architecture of major psychiatric disorders ARC-SV enables highly accurate detection and characterization of localized complex rearrangements of multiple DNA segments. Applying ARC-SV across human populations and brain cohorts uncovers connections between complex structural variantion and human-specific evolution, neural genes, and major psychiatric disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Micro-society experimental setups are increasingly used to infer aspects of human behavioural evolution. A key part of human society today is our dependence on, and use of, technology–whether simple (such as a knife) or complex (such as the technology that underpins AI). Previously, two groups of researchers used an abstracted-wheel experiment to explore the evolution of human technical behaviour, reaching fundamentally different outcomes. Whereas one group saw their results as indicating social learning only (void of causal understanding), the other inferred non-social technical reasoning as part of human technical behaviour. Here we report on the third generation of the micro-society abstracted-wheel experiment. We argue that causal reasoning is inseparable from both social learning and technical reasoning, and that these traits probably co-evolved into the current human socio-technical niche. Based on our outcomes, we present a critical assessment of what this experiment may (or may not) reveal about the evolution of human technical behaviour. We show that the abstracted-wheel experiment reflects behavioural output only, instead of testing for cognition. It is therefore limited in its ability to inform on aspects of human cognitive evolution, but it can provide useful insights into the interrelatedness of social learning, technical reasoning, and causal reasoning. Such a co-evolutionary insight has the potential to inform on aspects of human socio-technical evolution throughout the Pleistocene. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Integrated assessment models (IAMs) are popular tools used to predict the evolution of human society, a challenging question that science has long tried to address. The World3 model is a popular IAM, designed in the seventies by several scientists convened by the Club of Rome and mostly known for its usage to analyze the so‐called limits to growth. The recent Earth for all (E4A) model has been initiated by one of the major co‐authors of the World3 model, Jørgen Randers. It is substantially more complicated than the relatively simple World3 model, and it has been used to compare two different and opposite world development scenarios: the too little too late scenario, in which current policies are assumed to continue, and the giant leap (GL) scenario, in which 21 policies related to five turnarounds are identified to produce significant improvements in six indicators of human well‐being. By using global and local sensitivity analyses of the E4A model, we suggest that the evolution of the six indicators in the GL scenario can be approximately reached by focusing on just six policies and three turnarounds (namely, the energy, the inequality, and the poverty turnarounds). The evolution of the six indicators can be even improved by investing “reasonably” more on three of these six policies and by keeping unchanged the remaining three. From a methodological point of view, we exploit both global (Sobol) and local sensitivity analyses to identify the policies that most influence the six indicators, and we subsequently execute a scenario analysis of the identified policies to confirm that they can produce a similar (or even a better) evolution of the indicators themselves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In current research on the Anthropocene, assessing the impact of human activities via stratigraphic records of sediments and demarcating the Anthropocene epoch globally are critical scientific issues that urgently need to be addressed. The northeastern Qinghai-Xizang Plateau (QXP), where humans first settled permanently in large numbers in the QXP, has varying sedimentary environments that are extremely sensitive to human activities. In contrast to other regions of the QXP, the northeastern sector boasts a richer array of climatic and environmental reconstruction sequences. This distinctive feature renders it an exemplary locale for investigating the stratigraphic boundary of the Anthropocene. Through in-depth analysis and integration of existing paleoclimate and paleoenvironment sequences in the northeastern QXP, we draw the following conclusions: (1) Throughout the past millennium, the impact of human activities on the environment of the northeastern QXP has become increasingly significant, especially in the past 200–300 years, gradually overshadowing climatic factors. (2) Since AD 1950, multiple physicochemical indicators related to human activities in the northeastern QXP have shown exponential growth, forming a distinct peak within the past millennium and clearly depicting the global "Great Acceleration" phenomenon and its development process. (3) Intensified human activities have driven swift environmental shifts and "decoupled" the interplay between climatic variations and the ecological environment, propelling the northeastern QXP into the "Early Anthropocene" from the "Late Holocene". On the basis of the above findings, we construct a model suitable for identifying the stratigraphic boundary of the Anthropocene in the northeastern QXP and note that since the ecological environment in the northeastern QXP has entered the "Early Anthropocene", the climate signals of certain physicochemical indicators in sediments are gradually becoming weaker, whereas the signals of human activities are becoming stronger. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the impact that climate had in shaping cranial variation is critical for inferring the evolutionary mechanisms that played a role in human diversification. Here, we provide a comprehensive study aiming to analyze the association between climate and cranial variation of high latitude populations living in temperate to cold environments of Asia, North America, and South America. For this, we compiled a large morphometric dataset (N = 2633), which was combined with climatic and genomic data. We tested the influence of climate on the facial skeleton, nasal protrusion, and cranial vault and through multiple statistical tests at two geographical scales: intracontinental and intercontinental. We show that populations living in cold areas share a morphological pattern characterized by an increase in nasal height, facial and orbital heights and widths, a decrease in facial protrusion, and larger, longer, and lower cranial vaults. There are also distinctive features; populations from north Asia present the tallest noses, largest faces, and cranial vaults of the whole sample. Nasal breadth dimensions show small values in Asians, large values in South Americans, and non‐significant changes in arctic North America. The morphological pattern in populations living at high latitude may be the result of parallel adaptation, as supported by physiological, morphometric, ecological, and genetic explanations, while the differences in magnitude and phenotypic expression could be due to the diverse population histories, severity of climate, and cultural strategies. Overall, our study shows that climate is a relevant factor shaping modern human morphology and it should be considered when studying modern human evolution and diversification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The human brain's complex morphology is spatially constrained by numerous intrinsic and extrinsic physical interactions. Spatial constraints help to identify the source of morphological variability and can be investigated by employing anatomical network analysis. Here, a model of human craniocerebral topology is presented, based on the bony elements of the skull at birth and a previously designed model of the brain. The goal was to investigate the topological components fundamental to the craniocerebral geometric balance, to identify underlying phenotypic patterns of spatial arrangement, and to understand how these patterns might have influenced the evolution of human brain morphology. Analysis of the craniocerebral network model revealed that the combined structure of the body and lesser wings of the sphenoid bone, the parahippocampal gyrus, and the parietal and ethmoid bones are susceptible to sustain and apply major spatial constraints that are likely to limit or channel their morphological evolution. The results also showcase a high level of global integration and efficient diffusion of biomechanical forces across the craniocerebral system, a fundamental aspect of morphological variability in terms of plasticity. Finally, community detection in the craniocerebral system highlights the concurrence of a longitudinal and a vertical modular partition. The former reflects the distinct morphogenetic environments of the three endocranial fossae, while the latter corresponds to those of the basicranium and calvaria. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evolutionary changes in human brain structure and function have enabled our specialized cognitive abilities. How these changes have come about genetically and functionally has remained an open question. However, new methods are providing a wealth of information about the genetic, epigenetic, and transcriptomic differences that set the human brain apart. Combined with in vitro models that allow access to developing brain tissue and the cells of our closest living relatives, the puzzle pieces are now coming together to yield a much more complete picture of what is actually unique about the human brain. The challenge now will be linking these observations and making the jump from correlation to causation. However, elegant genetic manipulations are now possible and, when combined with model systems such as organoids, will uncover a mechanistic understanding of how evolutionary changes at the genetic level have led to key differences in development and function that enable human cognition. This perspective discusses the challenge of understanding what sets the human brain apart and proposes how the wealth of modern tools may allow for going from correlation to causation to understand the origins and biology behind human brain evolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In popular materials designed to teach American students about the evolution of human skin color, students are guided toward a model in which ancestral latitude predicts levels of skin pigmentation. While this model agrees with data from people whose ancestors practiced intensive agriculture in Europe, Asia, and Africa, this model does not match data from other human populations across the globe, including the predicted skin pigmentation of ancient hunter-gatherer populations who maintained long-term settlements in these same regions. In this review, we discuss findings from ancient genome sequencing and provide guidance on teaching an updated model on the evolution of human skin color. (To increase accessibility for non-specialists, we present here a targeted rationale for updating classroom teaching practices, with a set of frequently asked questions regarding the current state of scientific research on this topic addressed in supplemental material.) With this update, we hope to help students avoid common misconceptions about human evolution—particularly, that the evolutionary pressures encountered by those who adopted a single human culture would apply to all humans, everywhere—and leverage authentic data and argumentation to convey the anti-racist reality that people with a wide range of skin colors thrived in high-latitude regions for many thousands of years, just as students with a wide range of skin colors can thrive in whatever place they currently call home. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The human otolithic system (utricle and saccule), housed within the bony vestibule of the inner ear, establishes our sense of balance in conjunction with the semicircular canals. Yet, while the morphological evolution of the semicircular canals is actively explored, comparative morphological analyses of the otolithic system are lacking. This is regrettable because functional links with head orientation suggest the otolithic system could be used to track postural change throughout human evolution and across primates more broadly. In this context, we present the first analysis of the evolution of the human otolithic system within an anthropoid primate setting. Using the vestibule as a morphological proxy for the utricle and saccule, we compare humans to 13 other extant anthropoid species, and use phylogenetically-informed methods to find correlations with body size, endocranial flexion, and head-neck posture. Our results, obtained through micro-CT of 136 inner ears, reveal two major evolutionary transitions in hominoids, leading to distinctive vestibular morphology in humans, characterized by otolithic morphology resembling squirrel monkeys (possibly due to reversal), with a pronounced supraovalic fossa. Finally, we find a positional signal embedded in the anthropoid bony vestibule, providing the foundation to further explore the evolution of human head-neck posture using inner ear morphology. Morphometric modeling reveals evolutionary divergences of the otolithic inner ear in humans and apes, with a possible link to the evolution of postural behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leveraging the simplicity of nucleotide mismatch distributions, we provide an intuitive window into the evolution of the human influenza A 'nonstructural' (NS) gene segment. In an analysis suggested by the eminent Danish biologist Freddy B. Christiansen, we illustrate the existence of a continuous genetic "backbone" of influenza A NS sequences, steadily increasing in nucleotide distance to the 1918 root over more than a century. The 2009 influenza A/H1N1 pandemic represents a clear departure from this enduring genetic backbone. Utilizing nucleotide distance maps and phylogenetic analyses, we illustrate remaining uncertainties regarding the origin of the 2009 pandemic, highlighting the complexity of influenza evolution. The NS segment is interesting precisely because it experiences less pervasive positive selection, and departs less strongly from neutral evolution than e.g. the HA antigen. Consequently, sudden deviations from neutral diversification can indicate changes in other genes via the hitchhiking effect. Our approach employs two measures based on nucleotide mismatch counts to analyze the evolutionary dynamics of the NS gene segment. The rooted Hamming map of distances between a reference sequence and all other sequences over time, and the unrooted temporal Hamming distribution which captures the distribution of genotypic distances between simultaneously circulating viruses, thereby revealing patterns of nucleotide diversity and epi-evolutionary dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Before the increase in anthropogenic activities, the global coastal ocean was a net autotrophic system. From human activity and the evolution of the earth, changes have been generated in its continents, oceans, atmosphere and life. Transport of sediments and bioelements to the coastal zone has been drastically altered, and there is debate about whether this zone is autotrophic or heterotrophic. This work carried out an exploratory study of five sandy beaches in the central coastal area of the state of Veracruz, three urban beaches on a gradient of anthropogenic activities in the Metropolitan Zone of Veracruz (ZMV) and two natural, non-urbanized beaches far from the ZMV to determine the concentrations and biochemical characteristics of the heterotrophic bacterial groups found in samples of surface marine sediments during two contrasting seasons in the region: dry season and rainy season. The presence of heterotrophic bacteria reflected the degree of anthropogenic disturbance that each beach presents, with a tendency to concentrate mainly on those close to urban centers. On the other hand, the anthropogenic disturbance gradient did not influence the diversity of biochemical characteristics of heterotrophic bacteria. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The process of making stone tools, specifically knapping, is a hominin behaviour that typically involves using the upper limb to manipulate a stone hammer and apply concentrated percussive force to another stone, causing fracture and detachment of stone chips with sharp edges. To understand the emergence and subsequent evolution of tool-related behaviours in hominins, the connections between the mechanics of stone knapping, including the delivery of percussive forces, and biomechanics and hominin anatomy, especially in the upper limb, are required. However, there is an absence of direct experimental means to measure the actual forces generated and applied to produce flakes during knapping. Our study introduces a novel solution to this problem in the form of an ergonomic hand-held synthetic hammerstone that can record the percussive forces that occur during knapping experiments. This hammerstone is composed of a deformable pneumatic 3D-printed chamber encased within a 3D-printed grip and a stone-milled striker. During knapping, hammer impact causes the pneumatic chamber to deform, which leads to a change in pressure that is measured by a sensor. Comparisons of recorded pressure data against corresponding force values measured using a force plate show that the synthetic hammer quantifies percussion forces with relatively high accuracy. The performance of this hammerstone was further validated by conducting anvil-supported knapping experiments on glass that resulted in a root mean square error of under 6%, while recording forces up to 730 N with successful flake detachments. These validation results indicate that accuracy was not sensitive to variations up to 15° from the vertical in the hammer striking angle. Our approach allows future studies to directly examine the role of percussive force during the stone knapping process and its relationship with both anatomical and technological changes during human evolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There's something strange about Freud's Civilization and its Discontents (1930). Biologically, Freud was a Neo-Lamarckian, who believed in both the modification of organisms through need and the inheritance of acquired characteristics. However, in Civilization, Freud argued that because human nature is immutable, society has dim odds of improving substantially. Lamarckians, of course, rejected that any species-nature is immutable, as species can always be transformed via the inheritance of acquired characteristics. In fact, many of Freud's Viennese contemporaries—such as Wilhelm Reich, Julius Tandler, and Paul Kammerer—took their Lamarckism to license precisely the sorts of radical social projects Freud deemed impossible. Thus the Freud of Civilization helped himself to a rigid view of human nature which, given his associated biological views, he seemingly ought to have rejected. In this paper, I explain this apparent inconsistency, and suggest Freud resolved it in the following way: Freud was not merely a Lamarckian, but also a strong and peculiar kind of recapitulationist, who believed stages of psychological development both recapitulate phylogeny, and "remain with us" throughout both individual lives and future species-history. I suggest Freud's recapitulationism supposed a certain inertia: what occurred in phylogenetic history cannot un-occur, and therefore there are aspects of our nature which we cannot un-acquire. In this way, Freud reached a rigid conception of human nature despite his Lamarckism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Starting with the emotional response of university students to Li Bai's poems after watching the film "The Longest Day in Chang'an", this paper delves into the concept of entropy and the principle of entropy increase. By introducing the origin and significance of entropy, the paper aims to elucidate the contents and connections of the three laws of thermodynamics. It further explores the implications of the principle of entropy increase on both life and everyday living. The paper reveals that the entire history of human evolution and the development of life is a narrative of combating entropy. To live a meaningful life, one must continuously strive against entropy, breaking free from comfort zones and maintaining self-discipline. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spatial interactions among anatomical elements help to identify topological factors behind morphological variation and can be investigated through network analysis. Here, a whole‐brain network model of the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes, Blumenbach 1776) is presented, based on macroanatomical divisions, and compared with a previous equivalent model of the human brain. The goal was to contrast which regions are essential in the geometric balance of the brains of the two species, to compare underlying phenotypic patterns of spatial variation, and to understand how these patterns might have influenced the evolution of human brain morphology. The human and chimpanzee brains share morphologically complex inferior‐medial regions and a topological organization that matches the spatial constraints exerted by the surrounding braincase. These shared topological features are interesting because they can be traced back to the Chimpanzee‐Human Last Common Ancestor, 7–10 million years ago. Nevertheless, some key differences are found in the human and chimpanzee brains. In humans, the temporal lobe, particularly its deep and medial limbic aspect (the parahippocampal gyrus), is a crucial node for topological complexity. Meanwhile, in chimpanzees, the cerebellum is, in this sense, more embedded in an intricate spatial position. This information helps to interpret brain macroanatomical change in fossil hominids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the 19th century, the study of shell middens has played an important role in archaeological research. Shell midden and broader coastal archaeology have transformed our understanding of human relationships with aquatic habitats, demonstrating the importance of marine environments to human evolution and ecology, the colonization of islands and establishment of maritime trade networks, changing social and political dynamics, and a variety of other issues. During the past two decades, shell midden research has greatly increased, marking an exciting time for new discoveries and heightened collaboration with Indigenous communities. Several key research trends in shell midden archaeology during the past 10–15 years include research on site distribution and temporality, underwater archaeology, historical ecology, terraforming, landscape legacies, and community collaboration. These research trends demonstrate the ways in which shell midden archaeologists are shaping our understanding of the human past and environmental change around the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Piloerection (e.g., goosebumps) is an essential thermoregulatory and social signaling mechanism in non‐human animals. Although humans also experience piloerection—often being perceived as an indicator of profound emotional experiences—its comparatively less effective role in thermoregulation and communication might influence our capacity to monitor its occurrence. We present three studies (total N = 617) demonstrating participants' general inability to detect their own piloerection events and their lack of awareness that piloerection occurs with a similar frequency on multiple anatomical locations. Self‐reported goosebumps were more frequent than observed piloerection. However, only 31.8% of self‐reports coincided with observable piloerection, a bias unrelated to piloerection intensity, anatomical location, heart‐rate variability, or interoceptive awareness. We also discovered a self‐report bias for the forearm, contradicting the observation that piloerection occurs with equal frequency on multiple anatomical locations. Finally, there was low correspondence between self‐reports of being "emotionally moved" and observed piloerection. These counterintuitive findings not only highlight a disconnect between an obvious physiological response and our capacity for self‐monitoring, but they underscore a fascinating divergence between human and non‐human species. Although piloerection is vital in non‐human organisms, the connection between piloerection and psychological experience in humans may be less significant than previously assumed, possibly due to its diminished evolutionary relevance. This research reveals a striking dissociation between an obvious physiological response—piloerection—and human capacity for self‐perception. Although this highlights the limitations of relying on self‐report measures, it also underscores an important divergence between humans and non‐human species. We propose that the relation between piloerection and psychological experience in humans is less pronounced than in other species, potentially due to its diminished role in human evolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractUncovering the collective behavior of flows among locations is critical to understanding the structure within an ever-changing spatial network. When a network evolves, there may exist subgraphs within which the internal flows generally follow a rule: the change rates of the flow weight are either collectively high or low. Classic network measures such as degree, clustering, and betweenness can be used to quantify the process of network evolution by profiling the overall characteristics over time. However, it remains challenging to elucidate how a spatial network is evolving without looking at structures where collective changes emerge. To bridge this gap, we introduce the concept of the Collective Flow-Evolutionary Pattern (CFEP) as a mesoscopic description for spatial network evolution. Four types of patterns with distinct features are defined to clarify the collective behaviors of the flow-evolutionary characteristics. We provide an analytical framework that utilizes flow change rates between two snapshots of the spatial network to detect CFEPs as optimized flow evolution (evo-groups). Synthetic experiments are presented to validate the method. A case study of large-scale individual mobile positioning data is conducted in the Twin Cities Metropolitan Area, Minnesota, US to demonstrate how CFEP can effectively understand the evolution of human mobility networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Homo naledi is near the extreme of small brain size within Homo but is easily recognized as Homo in other aspects of endocast morphology. This study adds new evidence of the endocast morphology of H. naledi by describing the Lesedi Hominin 1 (LES1) endocranium from the Lesedi Chamber and compares it to the previously known H. naledi individual Dinaledi Hominin 3 (DH3) as well as other hominin taxa. Materials and Methods: We examined interlandmark distances with both univariate and multivariate methods in multiple hominin taxa and both species of Pan. For each distance, we compared groups using adjusted Z‐scores (Azs). Our multivariate analyses included both principal component analyses (PCA) and linear discriminant analyses (LDA). Results: DH3 and LES1 each have absolute third frontal convolution measures that enter the upper half of the variation for Homo sapiens, Homo erectus, and Homo neanderthalensis. Examined relative to the cube root of endocranial volume, H. naledi ranks among the highest values in these samples of Homo. Both absolute and relative values for H. naledi specimens are far above Pan, Australopithecus, and Paranthropus, suggesting an expanded Broca's area. Conclusions: Both qualitative and quantitative analyses show consistency between LES1 and other H. naledi endocasts and confirm the shared morphology of H. naledi with H. sapiens, H. neanderthalensis, and some specimens of H. erectus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although repetitive DNA forms much of the human genome, its study is challenging due to limitations in assembly and alignment of repetitive short-reads. We have deployed k-Seek , software that detects tandem repeats embedded in single reads, on 2,504 human genomes from the 1,000 Genomes Project to quantify the variation and abundance of simple satellites (repeat units <20 bp). We find that the ancestral monomer of Human Satellite 3 makes up the largest portion of simple satellite content in humans (mean of ∼8 Mb). We discovered ∼50,000 rare tandem repeats that are not detected in the T2T-CHM13v2.0 assembly, including undescribed variants of telomericand pericentromeric repeats. We find broad homogeneity of the most abundant repeats across populations, except for AG-rich repeats which are more abundant in African individuals. We also find cliques of highly similar AG- and AT-rich satellites that are interspersed and form higher-order structures that covary in copy number across individuals, likely through concerted amplification via unequal exchange. Finally, we use pericentromeric polymorphisms to estimate centromeric genetic relatedness between individuals and find a strong predictive relationship between centromeric lineages and pericentromeric simple satellite abundances. In particular, ancestral monomers of Human Satellite 2 and Human Satellite 3 abundances correlate with clusters of centromeric ancestry on chromosome 16 and chromosome 9, with some clusters structured by population. These results provide new descriptions of the population dynamics that underlie the evolution of simple satellites in humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Behavioural economics works toward more realistic accounts of economic action, which includes efforts to endogenise the 'social'. In its social strand, behavioural economics is specifically concerned with fair outcomes in interactive economic games, which are explained by reference to social preferences, norms and institutions. While these concepts also matter to scholars in political economy and socioeconomics, behavioural economists seek to go further in specifying their behavioural and evolutionary foundations. This article critically evaluates evolutionary research strategies in the social strand of behavioural economics, which aim to uncover the evolutionary origins of fairness in economic experiments. Representatives of this field offer new support for the classical idea of 'doux commerce', or the civilising function of markets, by suggesting that cooperation with strangers in economic exchange fundamentally shaped the course of human evolution. Their explanatory framework is gene-culture coevolution, which covers long timespans of human existence. However, the case for the virtuous effect of markets in human prehistory remains ambiguous: basic concepts, causal mechanisms, and timescales of analysis vary to an extent that it is possible to arrive at very different projections of 'doux commerce' into the past. With regard to the present, these fulfil a similar function in naturalising market moralities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to place the general thesis for a species-unique “shared” or “we” intentionality, against the theoretical background of the material engagement approach. We will argue that the human ability to enact and share intentions rests upon a relational and participatory foundation of situated activity where intentional transactions between humans as well as between humans and things (in the broadest sense of material environment) are inseparable from the situational affordances of their engagement. Based on that, the paper advocates for an ecological-enactive account of shared intentionality which understands material engagement as central to the evolution and development of human social cognition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Neolithic transition introduced major diet and lifestyle changes to human populations across continents. Beyond well‐documented bioarcheological and genetic effects, whether these changes also had molecular‐level epigenetic repercussions in past human populations has been an open question. In fact, methylation signatures can be inferred from UDG‐treated ancient DNA through postmortem damage patterns, but with low signal‐to‐noise ratios; it is thus unclear whether published paleogenomes would provide the necessary resolution to discover systematic effects of lifestyle and diet shifts. To address this we compiled UDG‐treated shotgun genomes of 13 pre‐Neolithic hunter‐gatherers (HGs) and 21 Neolithic farmers (NFs) individuals from West and North Eurasia, published by six different laboratories and with coverage c.1×–58× (median = 9×). We used epiPALEOMIX and a Monte Carlo normalization scheme to estimate methylation levels per genome. Our paleomethylome dataset showed expected genome‐wide methylation patterns such as CpG island hypomethylation. However, analyzing the data using various approaches did not yield any systematic signals for subsistence type, genetic sex, or tissue effects. Comparing the HG‐NF methylation differences in our dataset with methylation differences between hunter‐gatherers versus farmers in modern‐day Central Africa also did not yield consistent results. Meanwhile, paleomethylome profiles did cluster strongly by their laboratories of origin. Using larger data volumes, minimizing technical noise and/or using alternative protocols may be necessary for capturing subtle environment‐related biological signals from paleomethylomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of Artificial Life research, as articulated by Chris Langton, is "to contribute to theoretical biology by locating life-as-we-know-it within the larger picture of life-as-it-could-be." The study and pursuit of open-ended evolution in artificial evolutionary systems exemplify this goal. However, open-ended evolution research is hampered by two fundamental issues: the struggle to replicate open-endedness in an artificial evolutionary system and our assumption that we only have one system (genetic evolution) from which to draw inspiration. We argue not only that cultural evolution should be seen as another real-world example of an open-ended evolutionary system but that the unique qualities seen in cultural evolution provide us with a new perspective from which we can assess the fundamental properties of, and ask new questions about, open-ended evolutionary systems, especially with regard to evolved open-endedness and transitions from bounded to unbounded evolution. Here we provide an overview of culture as an evolutionary system, highlight the interesting case of human cultural evolution as an open-ended evolutionary system, and contextualize cultural evolution by developing a new framework of (evolved) open-ended evolution. We go on to provide a set of new questions that can be asked once we consider cultural evolution within the framework of open-ended evolution and introduce new insights that we may be able to gain about evolved open-endedness as a result of asking these questions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A long-standing goal of evolutionary biology is to decode how changes in gene regulatory networks contribute to human-specific traits. Human accelerated regions (HARs) are prime candidates for driving gene regulatory modifications in human development. The RBFOX1 locus is densely populated with HARs, providing a set of potential regulatory elements that could have changed its expression in the human lineage. Here, we examined the role of RBFOX1-HARs using transgenic zebrafish reporter assays and identified 15 transcriptional enhancers that are active in the developing nervous system, 9 of which displayed differential activity between the human and chimpanzee sequences. The engineered loss of two selected RBFOX1-HARs in knockout mouse models modified Rbfox1 expression at specific developmental stages and tissues in the brain, influencing the expression and splicing of a high number of Rbfox1 target genes. Our results provided insight into the spatial and temporal changes in gene expression driven by RBFOX1-HARs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neandertais and Denisovans, having inhabited distinct regions in Eurasia and possibly Oceania for over 200,000 y, experienced ample time to adapt to diverse environmental challenges these regions presented. Among present-day human populations, Papua New Guineans (PNG) stand out as one of the few carrying substantial amounts of both Neandertal and Denisovan DNA, a result of past admixture events with these archaic human groups. This study investigates the distribution of introgressed Denisovan and Neandertal DNA within two distinct PNG populations, residing in the highlands of Mt Wilhelm and the lowlands of Daru Island. These locations exhibit unique environmental features, some of which may parallel the challenges that archaic humans once confronted and adapted to. Our results show that PNG highlanders carry higher levels of Denisovan DNA compared to PNG lowlanders. Among the Denisovan-like haplotypes with higher frequencies in highlander populations, those exhibiting the greatest frequency difference compared to lowlander populations also demonstrate more pronounced differences in population frequencies than frequency-matched nonarchaic variants. Two of the five most highly differentiated of those haplotypes reside in genomic areas linked to brain development genes. Conversely, Denisovan-like haplotypes more frequent in lowlanders overlap with genes associated with immune response processes. Our findings suggest that Denisovan DNA has provided genetic variation associated with brain biology and immune response to PNG genomes, some of which might have facilitated adaptive processes to environmental challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cumulative culture, the accumulation of modifications, innovations, and improvements over generations through social learning, is a key determinant of the behavioral diversity across Homo sapiens populations and their ability to adapt to varied ecological habitats. Generations of improvements, modifications, and lucky errors allow humans to use technologies and know-how well beyond what a single naive individual could invent independently within their lifetime. The human dependence on cumulative culture may have shaped the evolution of biological and behavioral traits in the hominin lineage, including brain size, body size, life history, sociality, subsistence, and ecological niche expansion. Yet, we do not know when, in the human career, our ancestors began to depend on cumulative culture. Here, we show that hominins likely relied on a derived form of cumulative culture by at least ~600 kya, a result in line with a growing body of existing evidence. We analyzed the complexity of stone tool manufacturing sequences over the last 3.3 My of the archaeological record. We then compare these to the achievable complexity without cumulative culture, which we estimate using nonhuman primate technologies and stone tool manufacturing experiments. We find that archaeological technologies become significantly more complex than expected in the absence of cumulative culture only after ~600 kya. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As modern humans ventured out of Africa and dispersed around the world, they faced novel environmental challenges that led to geographic adaptations including skin colour. Over the long history of human evolution, skin colour has changed dramatically, showing tremendous diversity across different geographical regions, for example, the majority of individuals from the expansive lands of Africa have darker skin, whereas the majority of people from Eurasia exhibit lighter skin. What adaptations did lighter skin confer upon modern humans as they migrated from Africa to Eurasia? What genetic mechanisms underlie the diversity of skin colour observed in different populations? In recent years, scientists have gradually gained a deeper understanding of the interactions between pigmentation gene and skin colour through population‐based genomic studies of different groups around the world, particularly in East Asia and Africa. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of 26 skin colour‐related pigmentation genes and 48 SNPs that influence skin colour. Important pigmentation genes across three major populations are described in detail: MFSD12, SLC24A5, PDPK1 and DDB1/CYB561A3/TMEM138 influence skin colour in African populations; OCA2, KITLG, SLC24A2, GNPAT and PAH are key to the evolution of skin pigmentation in East Asian populations; and SLC24A5, SLC45A2, TYR, TYRP1, ASIP, MC1R and IRF4 significantly contribute to the lightening of skin colour in European populations. We summarized recent findings in genomic studies of skin colour in populations that implicate diverse geographic environments, local adaptation among populations, gene flow and multi‐gene interactions as factors influencing skin colour diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sex difference (SD) is ubiquitous in humans despite shared genetic architecture (SGA) between the sexes. A univariate approach, i.e., studying SD in single traits by estimating genetic correlation, does not provide a complete biological overview, because traits are not independent and are genetically correlated. The multivariate genetic architecture between the sexes can be summarized by estimating the additive genetic (co)variance across shared traits, which, apart from the cross-trait and cross-sex covariances, also includes the cross-sex-cross-trait covariances, e.g., between height in males and weight in females. Using such a multivariate approach, we investigated SD in the genetic architecture of 12 anthropometric, fat depositional, and sex-hormonal phenotypes. We uncovered sexual antagonism (SA) in the cross-sex-cross-trait covariances in humans, most prominently between testosterone and the anthropometric traits - a trend similar to phenotypic correlations. 27% of such cross-sex-cross-trait covariances were of opposite sign, contributing to asymmetry in the SGA. Intriguingly, using multivariate evolutionary simulations, we observed that the SGA acts as a genetic constraint to the evolution of SD in humans only when selection is sexually antagonistic and not concordant. Remarkably, we found that the lifetime reproductive success in both the sexes shows a positive genetic correlation with anthropometric traits, but not with testosterone. Moreover, we demonstrated that genetic variance is depleted along multivariate trait combinations in both the sexes but in different directions, suggesting absolute genetic constraint to evolution. Our results indicate that testosterone drives SA in contemporary humans and emphasize the necessity and significance of using a multivariate framework in studying SD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Definition: Some of the earliest known engravings are described, analyzed, and interpreted, following their microscopic examination. They are of significance in exploring the cognitive evolution of hominins several hundred thousand years ago and have not been described together before. The Steinrinne site near Bilzingsleben, north of Weimar, Germany, is one of Europe's most important Lower Paleolithic occupation sites. Its extensive human habitation floor, excavated over 1000 square meters, comprises some of the world's oldest evidence of dwellings, broadly matching or exceeding the age of examples proposed in Africa, India, and France. It has yielded numerous hominin remains, many wooden artefacts, other exquisitely preserved organic remains, and more portable engravings than any other Middle Pleistocene site. The latter are reviewed here, presenting the results of a detailed microscopic examination of the main finds. Bilzingsleben has so far produced the largest number of engraved Lower Paleolithic objects reported, which are particularly important to exploring the cognitive developments of hominins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: The unique complexity of human childbirth is traditionally attributed to the opposing selection pressures of bipedal locomotion and large brains. Here, we explore this trade-off in Australopithecus with canonical discriminant analyses using different fetal head sizes. We reveal that the shape of the pelvis in Australopithecus led to a tight fit between the mother's pelvis and the newborn head despite their relatively small brain sizes. To alleviate this obstetrical dilemma, australopithecines must have already given birth to secondarily altricial infants that were helpless at birth like those of extant humans. Cognitive development and some aspects of the modern life history pattern therefore likely originated prior to the appearance of the genus Homo. The origin of difficult birth is still a matter of debate in obstetrics. Recent studies hypothesized that early hominins already experienced obstructed labor even with reduced neonatal head sizes. The aim of this work is to test this hypothesis using an extant obstetrical sample with known delivery outcomes. Three delivery outcomes (i.e., instrument-assisted, Caesarean section, and vaginal birth) were evaluated using a discriminant analysis based on 131 mother–baby dyads and 36 feto-pelvic variables. This obstetrical sample was compared with 20 australopithecine "dyads" generated from the combination of six pelvic reconstructions (three for Australopithecus afarensis, two for A. africanus, and one for A. sediba) and three fetal head size estimations. The obstetrical analysis revealed that dystocic births can be predicted by pelvic features such as an anteroposteriorly flattened pelvic inlet. Australopithecines shared these pelvic morphologies with humans and had eutocic birth only for infants of 110 g brain size or smaller, equaling a human-like neonatal/adult brain size ratio of 25–28%. Although birth mechanism cannot be deduced, the newborn/adult brain size ratio was likely more human-like than previously thought, suggesting that australopithecines were secondarily altricial to circumvent instances of obstructed labor and subsequently require a prolonged postnatal brain growth period, implying some aspects of life history pattern similar to modern humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors of this response article express gratitude for the comments made by Martin and colleagues on their previous paper. They argue that their review articles provide evidence supporting the idea that women were capable of hunting in the Paleolithic era. They disagree with Martin and colleagues' assertion that reproductive behavioral ecology work among modern foragers should preclude reconstructions of past gender roles. The authors also address criticisms regarding testable hypotheses, estrogen levels, the value of mothering and gathering activities, and the feasibility of a strict sexual division of labor in small forager groups. They invite Martin and colleagues to collaborate on further research to explore the reasons behind the absence of evidence for a sexual division of labor until relatively recently. [Extracted from the article]

This article challenges the idea that women played a significant role in human evolution through endurance hunting. The authors argue that while women are capable of physically demanding tasks, gendered divisions of labor are nearly universal and women's large-scale participation in hunting is limited to specific societies or contexts. They criticize the methodology of the article and caution against relying on data from Western industrialized populations. The authors suggest that the biological basis for gendered divisions of labor extends beyond athletic capabilities and is related to human patterns of prolonged postweaning juvenile dependency and provisioning. They argue that reproductive demands would favor less risky and energetically demanding subsistence tasks for women, making frequent endurance hunting unlikely in ancestral societies. [Extracted from the article]

The author examines the archetype of the uroboros as it appears in the opening ceremony of a bush doof music festival. Within this rite, a womb-like state is created for participants through the use of darkness, bodily stillness, and the sonic dominance of low-end frequencies. This state is symbolically associated with the archetype of the uroboros as described by Jungian psychoanalyst Erich Neumann. It is then posited that both music and human consciousness emerge from this state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From mid‐1960 to early 1961, the Melbourne Catholic weekly newspaper The Advocate carried an extended controversy on evolutionary science and its compatibility with the teachings of the Church. An intra‐denominational debate among Catholic scientists, clergy and laymen, the controversy was shaped by the theological framework of Pope Pius XII's encyclical Humani Generis (1950), which included the first ever papal statement on evolution. As a grassroots debate in which official Catholic policy as outlined in the encyclical was open to interpretation by competing interests, the controversy serves as an index of the ambiguities of Humani Generis, and of the uncertainties of wider Church policy at the time, regarding evolutionary science and human evolution in particular. The article considers the Advocate controversy and its immediate aftermath within the context of Humani Generis's strictures on human evolution, and within the longer history of Catholic responses to and engagement with evolutionary science. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies of macroevolution have revealed various trends in evolution – which have been documented and discussed. There is, however, no consensus on this topic. Since Darwin's time one presumption has persisted: that throughout evolution organisms increase their independence from and stability towards environmental influences. Although this principle has often been stated in the literature, it played no role in mainstream theory. In a closer examination, we studied this particular feature and described that many of the major transitions in animal evolution have been characterized by changes in the capacity for physiological regulation. Organisms gained in robustness, self‐regulation, homeostasis and stabilized self‐referential, intrinsic functions within their respective systems. This is associated with expanded environmental flexibility, such as new opportunities for movement and behaviour. Together, these aspects can be described as changes in the capacity for autonomy. There seems to be a large‐scale trajectory in evolution during which some organisms gained in autonomy and flexibility. At the same time, adaptations to the environment emerged that were a prerequisite for survival. Apparently, evolution produced differential combinations of autonomy traits and adaptations. These processes are described as modifications in relative autonomy because numerous interconnections with the environment and dependencies upon it were retained. Also, it is not a linear trend, but rather an outcome of all the diverse processes which have been involved during evolutionary changes. Since the principle of regulation is a core element of physiology, the concept of autonomy is suitable to build a bridge from physiology to evolutionary research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The search for common characteristics between the musical abilities of humans and other animal species is still taking its first steps. One of the most promising aspects from a comparative point of view is the analysis of rhythmic components, which are crucial features of human communicative performance but also well-identifiable patterns in the vocal displays of other species. Therefore, the study of rhythm is becoming essential to understand the mechanisms of singing behavior and the evolution of human communication. Recent findings provided evidence that particular rhythmic structures occur in human music and some singing animal species, such as birds and rock hyraxes, but only 2 species of nonhuman primates have been investigated so far (Indri indri and Hylobates lar). Therefore, our study aims to consistently broaden the list of species studied regarding the presence of rhythmic categories. We investigated the temporal organization in the singing of 3 species of crested gibbons (Nomascus gabriellae, Nomascus leucogenys , and Nomascus siki) and found that the most prominent rhythmic category was isochrony. Moreover, we found slight variation in songs' tempo among species, with N. gabriellae and N. siki singing with a temporal pattern involving a gradually increasing tempo (a musical accelerando), and N. leucogenys with a more regular pattern. Here, we show how the prominence of a peak at the isochrony establishes itself as a shared characteristic in the small apes considered so far. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social structure may have changed from hierarchical to egalitarian and back along the evolutionary line of humans. Within the tradition of sociophysics, we construct a mathematical model of a society of agents subject to competing cognitive and social navigation constraints and predict, using statistical mechanics methods, that its degree of hierarchy decreases with encephalization and increases with group size, hence suggesting human societies were driven from hierarchical to egalitarian structures by the encephalization during the last few million years and back to hierarchical due to fast demographic changes during the Neolithic. In addition, applied to a different problem, the theory leads to the following predictions for modern pre-literary humans: (i) an intermediate hierarchy degree in mild climates. In harsher climates, societies will be (ii) more egalitarian if organized in small groups (of less than 100 persons) but (iii) more hierarchical if in larger (of more than 1000 persons) groups. The predicted bifurcation, characteristic of a phase transition, is also seen in the empirical cross-cultural record (248 cultures in the Ethnographic Atlas). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For at least 150,000 years, the human body has been culturally modified by the wearing of personal ornaments and probably by painting with red pigment. The present study used functional magnetic resonance imaging to explore the brain networks involved in attributing social status from face decorations. Results showed the fusiform gyrus, orbitofrontal cortex, and salience network were involved in social encoding, categorization, and evaluation. The hippocampus and parahippocampus were activated due to the memory and associative skills required for the task, while the inferior frontal gyrus likely interpreted face ornaments as symbols. Resting-state functional connectivity analysis clarified the interaction between these regions. The study highlights the importance of these neural interactions in the symbolic interpretation of social markers on the human face, which were likely active in early Homo species and intensified with Homo sapiens populations as more complex technologies were developed to culturalize the human face. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Humans are progressing machines. Naturally, it is continuously changing and modifying not only itself but also everything around it, from a simple gadget to abstract concepts or questions asked from the very beginning of conscious ancestors’ times. Therefore, it is universally accepted that the human evolution process has never ceased and never will. In today’s world, Homo Sapiens are considered as human. However, if there is evolution, new, more intelligent, much healthier, and morally better individuals will emerge in time. The second half of the twentieth century paved the way for a thought on transcendent human with the popularized science fiction works. Aliens and robots, with their brain capacities and bodily functions, were depicted as beings to superior to humans. It was the superhero comics and books that reinforced the thought of a possibility of a superman seeded by the medical experiments conducted during WWII. Now, people are discussing immortality, or at least anti-aging. New drugs are tested to see whether deadly diseases can be cured. There are countless areas working to enhance and make better human conditions. Once the aimed goals are achieved, human will be called post-human. But, since we are in an epoch between the former and the latter, our first milestone to reach is being a transhuman. Nebula and Hugo-awarded author, Ted Chiang, is an American science fiction writer. His novellas are best known for their transhumanist features. As a computer science graduate, Chiang, in his short story called ‘Understand’, successfully fictionalizes the possible outcomes of a world in which a minority is privileged with abilities beyond human limitation. His portrayal of such a world makes one ponder whether humanity is “really” ready for such a move up on the genetic ladder or whether we are pushing fast ourselves to our own demise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Morphological studies typically avoid using osteological samples that derive from captive animals because it is assumed that their morphology is not representative of wild populations. Rearing environments indeed differ between wild and captive individuals. For example, mechanical properties of the diets provided to captive animals can be drastically different from the food present in their natural habitats, which could impact cranial morphology and dental health. Here, we examine morphological differences in the maxillae of wild versus captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) given the prominence of this species in comparative samples used in human evolution research and the key role of the maxilla in such studies. Size and shape were analysed using three‐dimensional geometric morphometric methods based on computed tomography scans of 94 wild and 30 captive specimens. Captive individuals have on average larger and more asymmetrical maxillae than wild chimpanzees, and significant differences are present in their maxillary shapes. A large proportion of these shape differences are attributable to static allometry, but wild and captive specimens still differ significantly from each other after allometric size adjustment of the shape data. Levels of shape variation are higher in the captive group, while the degree of size variation is likely similar in our two samples. Results are discussed in the context of ontogenetic growth trajectories, changes in dietary texture, an altered social environment, and generational differences. Additionally, sample simulations show that size and shape differences between chimpanzees and bonobos (Pan paniscus) are exaggerated when part of the wild sample is replaced with captive chimpanzees. Overall, this study confirms that maxillae of captive chimpanzees should not be included in morphological or taxonomic analyses when the objective is to characterise the species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many aspects of breast cancer metastasis remain poorly understood, despite its clinical importance. In this issue of the JCI, Winkler et al. have applied an elegant patient-derived xenograft (PDX) model to map the transcriptomes of single cells in matched primary tumors and lung metastases across 13 breast cancer PDX models. They identified distinct transcriptional changes associated with metastatic evolution in lowly and highly metastatic primary tumors. Furthermore, by classifying the “epithelial-mesenchymal plasticity” (EMP) state of single cells, they revealed that considerable EMP heterogeneity exists among primary and metastatic human breast cancer cells. However, the EMP profile of a tumor does not change substantially upon metastasis. These findings give an unprecedentedly detailed view into the transcriptional heterogeneity and evolution of metastatic human breast cancer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article explores Bernard Shaw's play "Man and Superman" as a satirical reinterpretation of the Don Juan myth, focusing on Shaw's intertextual engagement with Lord Byron's works. Shaw's familiarity with Byron's poetry is evident in his play, with linguistic and stylistic echoes that suggest a deliberate homage to Byron's lyrical style. The study highlights the literary influence of Byron on Shaw's work, emphasizing the interplay between tradition and innovation in literature. [Extracted from the article]

Today's biodiversity crisis fundamentally threatens the habitability of the planet, thus ranking among the primary human challenges of our time. Much emphasis is currently placed on the loss of biodiversity in the Anthropocene, yet these debates often portray biodiversity as a purely natural phenomenon without much consideration of its human dimensions and frequently lack long-term vistas. This paper offers a deep-time perspective on the key role of the evolving human niche in ecosystem functioning and biodiversity dynamics. We summarize research on past hunter–gatherer ecosystem contributions and argue that human–environment feedback systems with important biodiversity consequences are probably a recurrent feature of the Late Pleistocene, perhaps with even deeper roots. We update current understandings of the human niche in this light and suggest that the formation of palaeo-synanthropic niches in other animals proffers a powerful model system to investigate recursive interactions of foragers and ecosystems. Archaeology holds important knowledge here and shows that ecosystem contributions vary greatly in relation to different human lifeways, some of which are lost today. We therefore recommend paying more attention to the intricate relationship between biodiversity and cultural diversity, contending that promotion of the former depends on fostering the latter. This article is part of the theme issue 'Ecological novelty and planetary stewardship: biodiversity dynamics in a transforming biosphere'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Patterns of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in eukaryotic DNA are traditionally attributed to selective pressure, drift, identity descent, or related factors—without accounting for ways in which bias during de novo SNP formation, itself, might contribute. A functional and phenotypic analysis based on evolutionary resilience of DNA points to decreased numbers of non-synonymous SNPs in human and other genomes, with a predominant component of SNP depletion in the human gene pool caused by robust preferences during de novo SNP formation (rather than selective constraint). Ramifications of these findings are broad, belie a number of concepts regarding human evolution, and point to a novel interpretation of evolving DNA across diverse species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

African apes are humans' closest evolutionary relatives, yet their fossil record is almost nonexistent. Genomics shows that, despite the fact that African ape lineages originated 6–12 million years ago (Ma), the diversity within the living species is very young (<1 Ma), similar in age to the diversity of recent hominin species, such as modern humans and Neanderthals. The hominin fossil record shows deeper and greater diversity compared with that of the African apes, suggesting that, across hominine evolution, they must have experienced a high rate of extinction, with repeated replacements and dispersals. Recent genomic studies also suggest that African apes had higher levels of diversification in earlier periods, and it is likely that a high rate of extinction and replacement occurred. This raises questions about the last common ancestor, the conditions under which apes evolved, and the adaptive and dispersive nature of the current species. We are accustomed to regular announcements of new hominin fossils. There are now some 6000 hominin fossils, and up to 31 species. However, where are the announcements of African ape fossils? The answer is that there are almost none. Our knowledge of African ape evolution is based entirely on genomic analyses, which show that extant diversity is very young. This contrasts with the extensive and deep diversity of hominins known from fossils. Does this difference point to low and late diversification of ape lineages, or high rates of extinction? The comparative evolutionary dynamics of African hominids are central to interpreting living ape adaptations, as well as understanding the patterns of hominin evolution and the nature of the last common ancestor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The work reported in this article explores stone knapping learning processes through the study of a Late Upper Palaeolithic workshop in the Italian Alps, so as to contribute to the framework of today's debate on social learning. Social learning is an essential process for human evolution as it fosters the development of brain districts, the building of knowledge and the acquisition of new skills. Results suggest that knapping learning was likely a structured activity at the site. Moreover, this analysis helped the reconstruction of the social organisation and composition of this past group of hunter-gatherers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] A new high-quality chironomid-based temperature record was obtained from Shuanghu Lake in arid NW China. Combined with hydroclimatic and historical datasets, we demonstrated the direct effect (water shortages) and indirect effect (geopolitical conflicts) of climate change on the shift of the Silk Road route from the Tarim Basin to the northern slopes of the Tianshan Mountains during ∼420–850 CE. Although climate change has convincingly been linked to the evolution of human civilization on different temporal scales, its role in influencing the spatial patterns of ancient civilizations has rarely been investigated. The northward shift of the ancient Silk Road (SR) route from the Tarim Basin (TB) to the Junggar Basin during ∼420–850 CE provides the opportunity to investigate the relationship between climate change and the spatial evolution of human societies. Here, we use a new high-resolution chironomid-based temperature reconstruction from arid China, combined with hydroclimatic and historical datasets, to assess the possible effects of climate fluctuations on the shift of the ancient SR route. We found that a cooling/drying climate in the TB triggered the SR route shift during ∼420–600 CE. However, a warming/wetting climate during ∼600–850 CE did not inhibit this shift, but instead promoted it, because of the favorable climate-induced geopolitical conflicts between the Tubo Kingdom and the Tang Dynasty in the TB. Our findings reveal two distinct ways in which climate change drove the spatial evolution of human civilization, and they demonstrate the flexibility of societal responses to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]