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Coaching is a key driver supporting implementation of evidence-based instructional and behavioral practices (EBPs). The purposes of this study were to propose a model of coaching and examine the effects of two coaching mechanisms (prompting and performance feedback) on (a) teacher use of classroom management EBPs and (b) student classroom disruption. Using two counterbalanced, concurrent multiple-baseline designs across seven teachers, modest functional relations were found between highly efficient delivery of coaching using prompting alone and performance feedback alone on (a) an increase in teacher use of EBPs and (b) a decrease in classroom disruption. No consistent differences were observed in the order with which prompting versus performance feedback were introduced, nor were consistent benefits observed when adding combined versus individual use of prompting or performance feedback. Findings and implications for coaching research and practice are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Single-case intervention research design standards have evolved considerably over the past decade. These standards serve the dual role of assisting in single-case design (SCD) intervention research methodology and as guidelines for literature syntheses within a particular research domain. In a recent article (Kratochwill et al., 2021), we argued for a need to clarify key features of these standards. In this article we offer additional recommendations for SCD research and synthesis standards that have been either underdeveloped or missing in the conduct of research and in literature syntheses. Our recommendations are organized into three categories: expanding design standards, expanding evidence standards, and expanding the applications and consistency of SCDs. The recommendations we advance are for consideration for future standards, research design training, and they are especially important to guide the reporting of SCD intervention investigations as they enter the literature-synthesis phase of evidence-based practice initiatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we provide a critique focused on the What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) Standards for Single-Case Research Design (Standards 4.1). Specifically, we (a) recommend the use of visual-analysis to verify a single-case intervention study's design standards and to examine the study's operational issues, (b) identify limitations of the design-comparable effect-size measure and discuss related statistical matters, (c) review the applicability and practicality of Standards 4.1 to single-case designs (SCDs), and (d) recommend inclusion of content pertaining to diversity, equity, and inclusion in future standards. Within the historical context of the WWC Pilot Standards for Single-Case Design (1.0) , we suggest that Standards 4.1 may best serve as standards for meta-analyses of SCDs but will need to make clear distinctions among the various types of SCD studies that are included in any research synthesis. In this regard, we argue for transparency in SCD studies that meet design standards and those that do not meet design standards in any meta-analysis emanating from the WWC. The intent of these recommendations is to advance the science of SCD research both in research synthesis and in promoting evidence-based practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The contextual fit of a behavior support plan refers to the extent that the procedures of the plan are consistent with the knowledge, values, skills, resources, and administrative support of those who are expected to implement the plan. This study used a concurrent multiple baseline design across four participants to assess the presence of a functional relation between introduction of the Contextual Fit Enhancement Protocol, an intervention designed to improve contextual fit, and (a) an increase in fidelity of support plan implementation and (b) improved student behavior. Results indicate that following implementation of the Contextual Fit Enhancement Protocol, support plan implementation fidelity increased and student problem behavior decreased. In addition, teachers participating in the study rated the contextual fit intervention process as effective and efficient. Limitations and implications for future research, practice, and training are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Implementing evidence-based practices is becoming both a goal and standard across medicine, psychology, and education. Initial successes, however, are now leading to questions about how successful demonstrations may be expanded to scales of social importance. In this paper, we review lessons learned about scaling up evidence-based practices gleaned from our experience implementing school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS) across more than 23,000 schools in the USA. We draw heavily from the work of Flay et al. (Prev Sci 6:151-175, 2005. doi: 10.1007/s11121-005-5553-y ) related to defining evidence-based practices, the significant contributions from the emerging "implementation science" movement (Fixsen et al. in Implementation research: a synthesis of the literature, University of South Florida, Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health Institute, The National Implementation Research Network (FMHI Publication #231), Tampa 2005), and guidance we have received from teachers, family members, students, and administrators who have adopted PBIS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Positive behavior interventions and supports (PBIS) was first introduced with the reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act in 1997. In this article, we describe the 25-year history of the PBIS implementation experience, including the core features of PBIS as a multitiered framework and the process and outcomes for implementing PBIS across over 26,000 schools. We also summarize the national outcome data of PBIS implementation and conclude with a discussion of future directions and considerations, focusing on sustainability and scaling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We propose in this article that a central element in the large-scale implementation of evidence-based practices is the process by which initial investment in local demonstrations is leveraged into larger implementation efforts. We offer a definition of this "resource leveraging" and propose a process for both measuring and reporting the effects of leveraging. We suggest that resource leveraging become a valid focus of future research and that the intentional measurement, planning, and management of resource leveraging be used to improve the scaling-up of effective practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Data-based problem solving is a hallmark of research-supported practices such as positive behavioral interventions and supports. In this study, we provided members of positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS) teams from 38 elementary schools with professional development focused on a research-supported problem-solving model (Team- Initiated Problem Solving). We used direct observations to document procedures, practices, and outcomes before and after participating in the professional development workshop. Within the context of a randomized waitlist controlled trial, team members in the Immediate Group demonstrated greater improvement in (a) problem-solving procedures, (b) decision-making practices, and (c) meeting outcomes than did members of PBIS teams in the Waitlist Group. Our findings extend what is known about team-based problem solving and provide a framework for future research and improved practice related to decision making by school teams. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, the author talks about various research, implementation, and policy development carried out for supporting individuals with disabilities. Topics discussed include improving quality of life experienced by disabled individuals and their families; establishment of systems of education, employment, and social networks for the same; achieving of substantive positive strides.

Clarke et al. provide a summary of research published in Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions over the past 17 years and identify trends in the type of scholarship guiding the field. We offer this commentary in response to an invitation to suggest directions for the future of research focusing on positive behavior support, and implications for how that research can benefit individuals in school, community, work, and home settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The success of function-based interventions depends not just on the quality of procedures but also on the extent to which procedures are implemented as planned. Too often in schools, effort is committed to functional assessment and behavior support plan design, only to be followed by weak implementation. This study used a multiple baseline across participants design to examine whether a functional relation exists between a treatment package consisting of (a) self-monitoring treatment fidelity, (b) collecting data on student behavior, (c) entering fidelity and student behavior data into an online data management application, and (d) reviewing those data weekly using graphs generated by the application. Results indicate improved treatment fidelity and student behavior were associated with the treatment package. Potential contributions are discussed in terms of establishing efficient systems for schools that provide the structure for effective implementation of function-based interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An introduction to the journal is presented in which the editor discusses various reports in the issue on the topics including the research on neurodevelopmental disabilities and behaviour disorders, randomization logic for single-case research design and pictorial mnemonic strategies in research.

Estimates of the amount of land used for a defined amount of utility-scale electricity generation in the solar power industry, referred to as solar land use energy intensity (LUEI), are important to decision makers for evaluating the environmental impact of energy technology choices. In general, solar energy tends to have a larger on-site LUEI than that of fossil fuels because the energy generated per square meter of power plant area is much lower. Unfortunately, there are few studies that quantify the off-site LUEI for utility-scale solar energy, and of those that do, they share common methodologies and data sets. In this study, we develop a new method for calculating the off-site LUEI for utility-scale solar energy for three different technologies: silicon photovoltaic (Si-PV), cadmium-telluride (CdTe) PV, and parabolic trough concentrated solar thermal. Our results indicate that the off-site LUEI is most likely 1% or less of the on-site LUEI for each technology. Although our results have some inherent uncertainties, they fall within an order of magnitude of other estimates in the literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We evaluated the ability of typical school personnel with basic behavioral training to develop and implement function-based supports for students with mild to moderate problem behaviors. Descriptive results indicated that following four 1-hr training sessions, 13 participants were able to (a) identify interventions that were and were not functionally related to problem behavior and (b) lead school-based teams in developing function-based supports that were rated as technically sound by external behavior analysts. Data resulting from a non-concurrent multiple baseline analysis across five of the trained professionals, each working with a team to address the problem behavior of one elementary school student, indicated that plan implementation occurred with high fidelity and was functionally related to decreases in problem behavior and increases in academic engagement. In addition, school personnel rated the training, tools, and implementation process as effective and efficient. Limitations and implications of these results are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The authors discuss the journal article by Perry Zirkel on legal action in regard to functional behavioral assessment (FBA) and behavior intervention plans (BIPs). They contend that the Zirkel article opens larger questions that will be central to ongoing discussions at the national, state, district, school, and family levels. Such issues include the role of legal standards to guide quality education, specifically special education; the response of families, communities, and school personnel to problem behaviors; and a focus on the development of a full set of accommodations that result in academic, social, and physical growth rather than just FBA and BIPs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current pilot study demonstrates the potential of adding simple and efficient bully prevention strategies to already established School-Wide Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports. The self-report surveys of third-, fourth-, and fifth-grade students from three elementary schools evaluated the relationship between the implementation of Bully Prevention in Positive Behavior Support and attitudes related to bullying, harassment, and school safety. Results indicated significant improvements in 12 of the 13 dependent variables after the intervention was implemented. Student perceptions of assertiveness, bystander support, and use of a “stop” signal were particularly altered. Considerable methodological limitations are described along with potential implications for practice and recommendations for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scaling of evidence-based practices in education has received extensive discussion but little empirical evaluation. We present here a descriptive summary of the experience from seven states with a history of implementing and scaling School-Wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (SWPBIS) over the past decade. Each state has been successful in establishing at least 500 schools using SWPBIS across approximately a third or more of the schools in their state. The implementation elements proposed by Sugai, Horner, and Lewis (2009) and the stages of implementation described by Fixsen, Naoom, Blase, Friedman, and Wallace (2005) were used within a survey with each element assessed at each stage by the SWPBIS coordinators and policy makers in the seven states. Consistent themes from analysis of the responses were defined and confirmed with the surveyed participants. Results point to four central areas of state “capacity” as being perceived as critical for a state to move SWPBIS to scale (administrative leadership and funding, local training and coaching capacity, behavioral expertise, and local evaluation capacity), and an iterative process in which initial implementation success (100–200 demonstrations) is needed to recruit the political and fiscal support required for larger scaling efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

TASH’s historic commitment to advocacy and science has enabled it to be a trusted voice for people with severe disabilities and their families. We review recent developments in the controversy over facilitated communication (FC) in light of major contextual continuities and changes in the past two decades. A series of scholarly reviews of the literature on controlled experiments have established a preponderance of evidence that FC is not reliably an expression from the individual who receives facilitation. Evidence indicates that the facilitator is the usual source of the text. We discuss the standards of proof of efficacy that must apply before an intervention should be endorsed by a national organization that aims to have a major impact on policy and practices. The need for controlled experiments in evaluation interventions is discussed. The central concern in establishing efficacy of a practice is to rule out other plausible explanations for an outcome. The main concern in establishing effectiveness is replication under real-world conditions. The science-based practices movement has been taken up by most of the helping professions contributing to the education and support of people with severe disabilities. The movement aims to identify practices and catalog them in terms of the trustworthiness of the evidence supporting them. The movement has led to establishing standards for determining when an intervention can be said to be efficacious. We urge TASH to join this movement and, in light of a commitment to science-based practices, argue that it should withdraw its stated endorsement of FC, which is not supported by science-based research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A nonconcurrent multiple baseline across 3 middle schools was used to assess the impact that teaching all students to follow the Bullying and Harassment Prevention in Positive Behavior Support: Expect Respect intervention had on bullying behaviors. The 3 schools were using School-Wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports and as part of this effort all students in each school had been taught to discriminate "respectful" versus "nonrespectful" behavior. The Expect Respect intervention included, 3 1-hr lessons over a 6-month period to learn (a) how to signal "stop" when encountering nonrespectful behavior, (b) how to follow a "stopping routine" when asked to stop, (c) how to utilize the "bystander routine" when you are a witness to disrespectful behavior that does not stop even after the perpetrator has been asked to, and (d) how to recruit adult support if bullying behaviors endured. Before intervention implementation, 8 students from each school were engaged in focus groups to define the perceived need for bully prevention, and the bully prevention routines that best fit the social culture of their school. Data assessing the fidelity of intervention implementation indicate that the program was used with high fidelity and that in each of the 3 schools a reduction of verbal or physical aggression in the cafeteria was documented via direct observation. No consistent patterns were found with respect to the conditional probabilities that bystanders or recipients of bullying would use the bully prevention routines. No consistent changes were reported in student pre-post rating of school climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, we respond to Wolery’s critique of the What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) pilot Standards, which were developed by the current authors. We do so to provide additional information and clarify some points previously summarized in this journal. We also respond to several concerns raised by Maggin, Briesch, and Chafouleas after they applied the Standards to a single-case design synthesis published in this journal. The overall purpose of this response is to clarify what the Standards are designed to accomplish and to offer our views about future revisions. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This study evaluated the effects of manualized training in “Basic” functional behavioral assessment (FBA) for typical school professionals on the ability of these professionals to complete technically adequate FBAs. Twelve school professionals participated in four 1-hr training sessions using the Basic FBA training handbook. After documenting knowledge competencies, 10 of the 12 professionals each completed a formal FBA with a student from their school. The technical adequacy of these 10 FBAs was assessed with functional analyses. Results from the 10 functional analyses confirmed that all 10 school professionals accurately identified the antecedents and consequences controlling student problem behavior. The efficiency and social validity of the Basic FBA training process was also investigated. These preliminary findings suggest a role for behavior specialists to train typical school personnel in Basic FBA procedures. Implications, limitations, and directions for future research are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Shale gas production represents a large potential source of natural gas for the nation. The scale and rapid growth in shale gas development underscore the need to better understand its environmental implications, including water consumption. This study estimates the water consumed over the life cycle of conventional and shale gas production, accounting for the different stages of production and for flowback water reuse (in the case of shale gas). This study finds that shale gas consumes more water over its life cycle (13-37 L/GJ) than conventional natural gas consumes (9.3-9.6 L/ GJ). However, when used as a transportation fuel, shale gas consumes significantly less water than other transportation fuels. When used for electricity generation, the combustion of shale gas adds incrementally to the overall water consumption compared to conventional natural gas. The impact of fuel production, however, is small relative to that of power plant operations. The type of power plant where the natural gas is utilized is far more important than the source of the natural gas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Estimates of the amount of land used for a defined amount of utility-scale electricity generation in the solar power industry, referred to here as solar land use energy intensity (LUEI), are important to decision makers for evaluating the environmental impact of energy technology choices. However, these estimates for solar LUEI are calculated using three difficult-to-compare metrics and vary by as much as 4 orders of magnitude (0.042–64m2/MWh) across the available literature. This study reduces, characterizes, and explicates the uncertainty in these values for photovoltaic (PV) and concentrated solar power (CSP) technologies through a harmonization process. In this harmonization process, a common metric is identified and data existing in other forms are converted to the metric, where possible; standard algorithms for calculating solar LUEI are developed; gaps and deficiencies in the literature calculations are identified and remedied; and differences among the resulting estimates are characterized and analyzed. The resulting range of harmonized solar LUEI estimates is reduced to 2 orders of magnitude [5–55 (m2y)/MWh]. Due to variables such as technology and location, there is a significant amount of irreducible variability in general solar LUEI estimates. However, this variability does not necessarily represent uncertainty, as most of it can be explained by choices in calculation input parameters. This study finds that key solar technology- and location-dependent parameters such as insolation, packing factor, system efficiency, and capacity factor all vary widely across studies, and thus all share in the overall variability of solar LUEI. Only land use at the site of solar electricity generation facilities is considered because lifecycle land use beyond the site (for manufacturing, disposal, etc.) is not widely accounted for in the existing literature. This study provides a basis for moving forward with standardized and comparable solar land use studies and for filling gaps in lifecycle solar LUEI. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The effects of a literacy intervention matching student skill level with academic performance demands were examined through a multiple baseline across participants design. The dual dependent variables were problem behavior and academic engagement. Four students in Grades 2 or 3 who exhibited low academic performance and problem behavior during reading instruction participated. Functional behavioral assessment and oral reading fluency assessment indicated that each of the students (a) was at risk for reading difficulties and read at the frustration level in text used for reading instruction and (b) had escape-maintained problem behavior during instruction sessions. A nonconcurrent multiple baseline design across students was used to assess the effects of matching reading instructional level (e.g., reducing the aversive level of instruction) on academic engagement and problem behavior. Matching the reading instructional level to the skill level of the students was associated with academic engagement increases and problem behavior decreases for three of the students. The fourth student demonstrated improvement during baseline that made effects of the intervention difficult to assess. Conceptual implications and suggestions for integrating behavioral and academic supports are explored. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The purposes of this paper are to (a) propose an operational standard for defining a 'practice,' (b) encourage development of professional standards for visual and statistical analysis of single-case research, and (c) propose a standard for using single-case research results to identify practices that are 'evidence-based.' These topics are not new for behavioral researchers, but they become critical for the larger conversations now occurring among researchers, policy makers, and educators working to implement effective practices in psychology and education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Members of Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS) teams from 34 elementary schools participated in a Team-Initiated Problem Solving (TIPS) Workshop and follow-up technical assistance. Within the context of a randomized wait-list controlled trial, team members who were the first recipients of the TIPS intervention demonstrated greater implementation integrity in using the problem-solving processes during their team meetings than did members of PBIS Teams in the Wait-List Control group. The success of TIPS at improving implementation integrity of the problem-solving processes is encouraging and suggests the value of conducting additional research focused on determining whether there is a functional relation between use of these problem-solving processes and actual resolution of targeted student academic and social problems. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The impact of TASH over the next decade will be affected by decisions about the precision and consistency of the organization's messages to the field. TASH has long been the premier organization extending the voice of individuals with significant developmental disabilities. As TASH examines the themes that will be prominent in the coming years, we advocate a consistent focus on (a) qualify of life and (b) evidence-based practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Single-case research designs provide a rigorous research methodology for documenting experimental control. If single-case methods are to gain wider application, however, a need exists to define more clearly (a) the logic of single-case designs, (b) the process and decision rules for visual analysis, and (c) an accepted process for integrating visual analysis and statistical analysis. Considerations for meeting these three needs are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A summary of the available literature on sustainability is provided and recommended sustainability features are applied to implementation of schoolwide positive behavior interventions and supports (SWPBIS). One hundred and seventeen schools from 6 states completed the sustainability survey, which determined the presence of 8 sustainability features as they related to sustaining schoolwide positive behavior supports. Results from a logistic regression analysis demonstrate that together the sustainability features of administrative support combined with communication and data-based decision making create the best-fitting model of sustainability for SWPBIS. The results suggest that an educational innovation is more likely to be implemented and sustained with fidelity if it (a) has support from an administrator who encourages communication about the core features of the innovation and (b) uses data to plan and make changes. Implications for large-scale, sustained implementation of evidence-based practices are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many schools have problem-solving teams that support teachers by helping identify and resolve students' academic and social problems. Although research is limited, it has been found that teams sometimes fail to implement problem-solving processes with fidelity, which may hinder the resolution of problems. We developed the Team-Initiated Problem Solving (TIPS) model to guide problem-solving processes of Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS) Teams and the Decision Observation, Recording, and Analysis (DORA) instrument for measuring the fidelity of TIPS implementation. We conducted a TIPS Workshop for four elementary school PBIS Teams in North Carolina and Oregon and used DORA to assess the teams' implementation of TIPS processes in subsequent meetings. We found DORA was successful at allowing us to gather measures of fidelity of implementation, and that teams implemented TIPS processes with fidelity following the workshop. Timitations of these findings as well as implications for future research and practice are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Discipline practices in schools affect the social quality of each educational environment, and the ability of children to achieve the academic and social gains essential for success in a 21st century society. We review the documented patterns of office discipline referrals in 364 elementary and middle schools during the 2005-2006 academic year. Data were reported by school personnel through daily or weekly uploading of office discipline referrals using the Web-based School-wide Information System. Descriptive and logistic regression analyses indicate that students from African American families are 2.19 (elementary) to 3.78 (middle) times as likely to be referred to the office for problem behavior as their White peers. In addition, the results indicate that students from African American and Latino families are more likely than their White peers to receive expulsion or out of school suspension as consequences for the same or similar problem behavior. These results extend and are consistent with a long history of similar findings, and argue for direct efforts in policy, practice, and research to address ubiquitous racial and ethnic disparities in school discipline. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors examined the problem-solving practices of school teams engaged in implementing and improving schoolwide behavior support implementation. A multiple baseline design across 4 elementary school teams was used to assess the effects of the Team-Initiated Problem Solving (TIPS) training program (1 day of team training plus 2 coached meetings). A direct observation data collection protocol-Decision Observation, Recording, and Analysis-was used to index if teams followed 'meeting foundations' practices for effective problem solving (e.g., predictable agenda, stable participants, clear roles for facilitator, minute taker, data analyst) and 'thorough problem solving' practices for building interventions (e.g., problem definition, use of data, solution development, action planning). Direct observation results indicate that 3 of the 4 teams demonstrated improved meeting foundations and problem-solving skills after TIPS training. The fourth team also performed well, but documented baseline patterns that were either at optimum levels (meeting foundations) or with an increasing trend (problem solving) that prevented demonstration of an intervention effect. Team members perceived their meetings after TIPS training as resulting in more effective problem solving. Collectively, the results are interpreted as demonstrating a functional relation between TIPS training and improved problem solving practices by school teams. Implications address how to improve team-based consultation and problem solving in schools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the evidence-based practices and the standards in education. It presents proposals that may apply to any practice that aim to be evidence-based and to be used in the assessment of Schoolwide Positive Behavior Support (SWPBS). It cites the six criteria which will help to define a practice prior to assessing whether the practice is evidence-based. It explores the three tiers of interventions of SWPBS along with their specific practices and system features used to guide implementation.

Bullying behaviors are a growing concern in U.S. schools. We present here a behavioral approach to bully prevention utilizing a schoolwide intervention. Bully prevention in positive behavior support (BP-PBS) teaches students to withhold the social rewards hypothesized to maintain bullying. A single-subject multiple baseline design across 6 students and three elementary schools was implemented in an empirical evaluation of the intervention's effectiveness. Results indicated that implementation was functionally related to decreased incidents of bullying for all 6 students observed. In addition, we observed a decrease in the social responses from victims and bystanders. Finally, school staff implemented the program with a high degree of fidelity and rated the program as effective and efficient. Limitations and implications of these results are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act and No Child Left Behind emphasize the use of scientifically based research to improve outcomes for students. From this emphasis, response-to-intervention has evolved. We present one perspective on the defining features of response-to-intervention and application of those features to school-wide positive behavior supports (SWPBS). We suggest that the initial purpose of response-to-intervention has expanded from a focus on screening and improved outcomes for students with learning disabilities to a general approach for improving instructional and intervention decision making for all students. We describe a similar evolution of SWPBS, only with a focus on the (a) social culture within the whole school and (b) behavior supports for those students with problem behavior. We conclude by suggesting that the response-to-intervention approach offers an excellent umbrella of guiding principles for improved assessment and intervention decision making, and that SWPBS is an example of the application of these principles to the challenge of establishing formal systems of behavior support for all students' school- and classroom-wide. To guide SWPBS implementation, we offer a self-assessment protocol for school and leadership implementation teams to improve the development of an integrated continuum of behavioral interventions and practices that is effective, efficient, relevant, and durable. “I want my children to receive the Response-to-Intervention program.” “We've got a Response-to-Intervention team that meets on the 2nd Tuesday of each month, and a School-wide Positive Behavior Support committee that meets on 3rd Wednesday of each month.” “Response-to-Intervention is about closing the achievement gap. School-wide Positive Behavior Support is about improving school discipline and classroom management.” “We are required to use Response-to-Intervention to identify students with learning disabilities.” [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report a randomized, wait-list controlled trial assessing the effects of school-wide positive behavior support (SWPBS). An effectiveness analysis was conducted with elementary schools in Hawaii and Illinois where training and technical assistance in SWPBS was provided by regular state personnel over a 3-year period. Results document that the training and technical assistance were functionally related to improved implementation of universal-level SWPBS practices. Improved use of SWPBS was functionally related to improvements in the perceived safety of the school setting and the proportion of third graders meeting or exceeding state reading assessment standards. Results also document that levels of office discipline referrals were comparatively low, but the absence of experimental control for this variable precludes inference about the impact of SWPBS. Implications for future research directions are offered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the relationship between problem behaviors and academic variables in classrooms. Functional behavioral assessments conducted with two fourth grade students indicated that academic variables occasioned and maintained problem behaviors. Two behavior support interventions were developed for each participant. One intervention was designed using a competing pathways model that combined behavioral and academic supports, and linked the intervention components to the functional assessment results. A second intervention was drawn from the literature, but did not match the functional assessment results. A single-case, reversal design was used to assess the effects of the function-based versus non-function-based interventions. Results indicated the function-based academic interventions resulted in significantly fewer problem behaviors than were observed during non-function-based interventions. The results lend support to the idea that interventions for problem behaviors that occur in the classroom context will be most successful if based on functional behavioral assessments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study evaluates the effectiveness of a function-based intervention to improve behavior and reading outcomes for Latino English language learners (ELLs). The participants, four Latino ELLs in an elementary school general education setting, were directly observed over a 14-week period. Functional behavioral assessment via teacher interviews and archival reviews were conducted to establish a hypothesis regarding the maintaining function of students' problem behavior. A functional analysis was conducted to verify the function of students' problem behavior, and a single-subject, multiple-baseline, across-subjects design was used to document the relationship between reduction in problem behavior and implementation of language-matched instructional priming. Results documented a functional relationship between intervention and reduction of problem behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the effects of adding individualized, function-based support to the well-documented early intervention First Step to Success. A single-subject multiple baseline design was applied across three K-1 students who did not respond to standard First Step to Success procedures. A functional behavioral assessment and individualized function-based support plan were added to the First Step protocol. The multiple-baseline analysis documented an effect between adding individualized, function-based supports to the standard First Step program and both (a) a decrease in problem behavior and (b) an increase in academic engagement. Implications of the results are provided for the design of school-based behavior support, implementation of First Step to Success, and applications of manualized interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors examined the relation between variables maintaining problem behavior and reading performance for elementary-age students. Participants were 51 students in Grades 4, 5, and 6 who had received two or more office discipline referrals in 2003-2004. Students were grouped by teacher-indicated function of problem behavior. The prevalence of behavioral function for students in general and special education is reported, and differences were determined for the number of discipline referrals and oral reading fluency rates. Chi-square analysis indicated differences in base rates of function between students in general and special education. Multivariate analysis of variance indicated significant differences in oral reading fluency by function of problem behavior, and follow-up analyses indicated significantly lower fluency scores for students whose indicated function was escape from academic tasks. These findings provide evidence for a coercion model in the classroom. The results are discussed in terms of the relevance of using functional behavior assessment and behavior support with general education populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When chronic problem behaviors occur in schools, the tendency is to react with stringent and restrictive consequences. Recently, emphasis has shifted toward proactive prevention strategies. In this article, we focus on what we know and need to know about school-wide applications of effective practices and systems for preventing problem behaviors. We describe why this emphasis is important, what defines one prevention approach called school-wide positive behavior support, what current research results indicate about this approach, and what future research is needed to prevent development and occurrences of problem behavior in schools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is increasing concern over the number of young children who exhibit challenging behaviors in early childhood settings. Comprehensive prevention models are needed to support teachers' management of challenging behaviors and to avert the development of such behaviors within at-risk populations. One approach utilizes a three-tier prevention model called positive behavior support (PBS). The present research first assessed one region's implementation of PBS in 15 early childhood settings and found that on average, few features of PBS (30.79%) were implemented. Next, the impact of PBS consultation on teachers' use of universal PBS practices and children's behavior was evaluated in a multiple baseline design across four classrooms. A functional relationship was established between PBS consultation and teachers' implementation of universal PBS practices, but overall low levels of problem behavior prevented assessment of the impact of these changes on child problem behavior. Implications for future applications of PBS to early childhood settings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

First Step to Success is a manualized early intervention program with documented success in reducing the problem behavior of young children. Walker and colleagues (2005) are now engaged in analyses of variables that will increase the proportion of children for whom First Step is effective. A possible enhancement to the First Step to Success protocol is the use of functional behavioral assessment and individualized, function-based behavior support. The present analysis provides a case study with one 6-year-old student who received First Step to Success. Following the coaching phase of First Step, a reversal design was employed in which function-based features of behavior support were withdrawn and then re-implemented. Analysis of problem behavior and academic engagement data suggests that incorporation of function based features enhanced the impact of First Step to Success. Implications for modifications of the First Step protocol and future research are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examined the extent to which state departments of education are including (a) goals for student social behavior in their mission statements; (b) criteria for individual student, classroom, and schoolwide behavior support in certification standards for general education teachers, special education teachers, and principals; and (c) state initiatives focused on improving student social behavior. Web-based information from state departments of education from all 50 states and from the District of Columbia were reviewed in the fall of 2004. Results indicated that only 16 states (31%) include a focus on student social behavior in their mission statements. Individual student behavior support practices were identified in the curriculum for general educators in 30 (59%) states and for special educators in 39 (76%) states. Classroom behavior support practices were required for general education teachers in 39 (76%) states and for special educators in 40 (78%) states. Schoolwide behavior support practices were most likely to be required for principal certification, and they were formally identified in 20 (39%) of the states surveyed. Character education was the most common state initiative cited for improving social behavior in schools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined how the composition of a behavior support team affected use of assessment information in the design of behavior support plans. Specifically, we examined if typical teams designed behavior support plans that differed in (a) technical adequacy and/or (b) contextual fit when (1) teams did not include behavior specialists, (2) teams included behavior specialists, or (3) behavior specialists worked alone. Fifty-eight school personnel on 12 behavior support teams from typical elementary schools and 6 behavior specialists participated in the study. Vignettes describing hypothetical students with functional behavior assessment outcome information were used to develop 36 behavior support plans (12 by teams alone, 12 by specialists alone, and 12 by teams with specialists). Results were assessed by 3 expert behavior analysts for technical adequacy and by all 64 team members for contextual fit. Technical adequacy tended to be rated high if specialists alone or teams including a specialist designed the plan. Contextual fit tended to be rated high when teams alone or teams including a specialist designed the plan. Team members ranked plans developed by the team alone and plans developed by the team with a specialist as preferred for implementation over plans developed by a specialist alone. Implications for the selection of behavior support team membership are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study involved a longitudinal analysis of academic skills and problem behavior through elementary school. The purposes of the study were (a) to explore the interactions between reading skills and problem behavior, and (b) to determine the value of regular screening assessments in predicting which students would not respond to school-wide behavior support in fifth grade. The participants were elementary school students who entered kindergarten in 1998 and completed fifth grade in a school district with school-wide reading and behavior support systems. Analyses consisted of logistic regressions to predict the number of discipline contacts in fifth grade. Results indicated that both reading and behavior variables (including kindergarten reading variables) significantly predicted the number of discipline referrals received in fifth grade. Results are discussed in terms of determining pathways to problem behavior and implications for a combined approach to academic and behavior problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Faced with limited resources, schools require tools that increase the accuracy and efficiency of functional behavioral assessment. Yarbrough and Carr (2000) provided evidence that informant confidence ratings of the likelihood of problem behavior in specific situations offered a promising tool for predicting the accuracy of function-based hypotheses developed from staff interviews. The current study evaluated conditions in which a similar rating of informant confidence was effective in predicting the accuracy of functional assessment hypothesis statements. Nine students with problem behavior were identified, and functional behavioral assessment interviews with confidence scores were completed with 58 staff members. Between five and eight adults were interviewed about each student. The adults were selected based on their range of contact with the student (0 to 10+ hours per week) and their self-assessed knowledge about behavioral theory (no knowledge to extensive knowledge). Functional analyses were conducted to assess agreement with functional assessment hypotheses and the predictive value of confidence ratings. Results suggested limitations to the general use of confidence ratings in distinguishing accurate from inaccurate functional hypotheses across school staff with a broad range of contact with the target student. The study did find that informants who were both highly confident and who identified accurate functional assessment hypotheses had significantly higher levels of contact with the student in the target routine than those informants who had low confidence ratings and/or identified an incorrect function for the problem behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this evaluation we used Messick's construct validity as a conceptual framework for an empirical study assessing the validity of use, utility, and impact of office discipline referral (ODR) measures for data-based decision making about student behavior in schools. The Messick approach provided a rubric for testing the fit of our theory of use of ODR measures with empirical data on reported and actual use. It also facilitated our demonstration of Messick's principle that validation is both a developmental and an ongoing collaborative process among developers of educational and psychological measures, researchers interested in theories underlying such measures, and educators who use these measures in professional practice. We used a single-group, nonexperimental evaluation design to survey users of ODR measures from the standardized School Wide Information System in 22 elementary and 10 middle schools; respondents included school staff involved exclusively with data entry and staff actively involved in data-based decision making. Results were highly consistent across 2 independent data sources—electronic database records of actual access of summaries of ODR measures and self-report survey responses regarding frequencies and types of uses of ODR measures for decision making. Results indicated that ODR measures are regularly used for a variety of types of data-based decision making and are regarded as both efficient and effective for those purposes. We discuss implications of our SWIS ODR validity evaluation results within the context of the Messick framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nonaversive behavior management is an approach to supporting people with undesirable behaviors that integrates technology and values. Although this approach has attracted numerous proponents, more adequate definition and empirical documentation are still needed. This article presents an introduction to the nonaversive approach. Important definitions are suggested, and three fundamental elements are presented: (a) an emerging set of procedures for supporting people with severe challenging behavior; (b) social validation criteria emphasizing personal dignity; and (c) a recommendation for prohibition or restriction of certain strategies. These elements are defined in hopes of stimulating further discussion and empirical analyses of positive behavioral support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]