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This study reviews various financing solutions available for fisheries and aquaculture development in Caribbean small island developing states (SIDS) and Barbados, Grenada, and St. Vincent and the Grenadines. Previously identified financing needs within the fisheries and aquaculture sectors have been matched with the most suitable financing mechanisms. However, the use of blue levies is recommended and applicable in almost every scenario, as they allow these sectors to drive their own development in financing research and conservation projects to their own benefit. The use of "blue tokens" with sufficiently low repayment coupons allows development projects to gather public support for fisheries, thereby increasing the likelihood of the project being successful through community buy-in. The possibility of natural capital being traded as public equities as "Natural Asset Companies" provides the opportunity for development projects to fund themselves. The review concludes that natural capital can be leveraged as the base through which public-private partnerships (PPPs) can facilitate optimal delivery of ecosystem services, benefit multiple stakeholders, and provide numerous development opportunities. An enabling environment for debt and lending with low-interest loan repayments is also applicable to almost every scenario, as it facilitates access to capital finance for infrastructure development and the acquisition of increasingly sustainable fishing equipment. Steps towards generating an enabling environment for financing fisheries and aquaculture in the Caribbean region are also discussed. The establishment of dedicated financing institutions, PPPs, and sufficient data reporting infrastructure for the fisheries and aquaculture industry are essential for driving development in these sectors. Likely, the largest limiting factor in financing Caribbean fisheries and aquaculture industries is a lack of awareness of the range of finance and financing mechanisms available to stakeholders, as well as an enabling environment for financing blue Economy sectors. This review is thus intended to aid financing institutions, Blue Economy developers, and specifically Caribbean fisheries and aquaculture stakeholders and Caribbean governments by raising awareness of the financing mechanisms available, encourage the incorporation of their use in the fisheries and aquaculture industries in the Caribbean, and encourage policymakers to create an enabling environment for financing development in these crucial sectors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding visitors' willingness to pay (WTP) for natural ecosystems can assist policymakers in managing the environmental assets that form the foundation of nature-based tourism. To earn the highest economic return from limited budgetary resources, tourist-dependent destinations must identify sustainable sources of conservation funding and prioritize spending across ecosystems and initiatives. The purpose of this study is to assess the potential for visitor donations to serve as a source of conservation funding and investigate preferences and willingness to pay for multiple ecosystems concurrently, using data from a stated preference survey administered in Grenada, a small island state in the southern Caribbean that relies on nature-based tourism. Results from a discrete choice experiment and a contingent valuation exercise reveal a reluctance to donate to conservation initiatives by more than half of respondents. Visitors place the highest value on improvements to coral reefs, followed by rainforests, mangroves, and beaches. Average willingness to donate to a conservation trust fund ranged from US $8.00 to US $15.00, and from US $17.00 to US $52.00 for conservation plans targeting improvements to specific ecosystems. Few factors are found to be associated with willingness to pay. Scale heterogeneity may be a more significant source of variation than preference heterogeneity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sarcocystis miescheriana infection is an important cause of carcass condemnation during meat inspection. The infection can cause morbidity and mortality in domestic pigs. In this study, an 8‐month‐old finisher pig was presented to a local abattoir for slaughter. Multiple white nodular lesions affecting the meat were observed, resulting in the condemnation of the carcass. Consequently, half of the carcass was submitted to the necropsy diagnostic laboratory in the School of Veterinary Medicine for further evaluation. Grossly, all superficial and deep muscle groups had severe multifocal macrocysts (3 mm × 2 mm × 1 mm) on the surface and extending deep into the skeletal musculature. Histopathology revealed moderate multifocal granulomatous and eosinophilic myositis with intralesional degenerated and intact parasites. Sample genomic DNA sequence analysis of the 18S RNA gene showed 100% identity to S. miescheriana in the GenBank. This is the first report of S. miescheriana in Grenada, West Indies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In October 1983 the small Eastern Caribbean island of Grenada, a member of the Commonwealth with the Queen as Head of State, dominated the headlines in Britain. The US had invaded Grenada to restore order after the violent implosion of the Marxist-Leninist government. It is well established that the US misled the UK as to their intentions until the eleventh hour and that this resulted in a disproportionate amount of discord between the allies. This article departs from that aspect by examining how policymakers in London handled the crisis. Using recently declassified documents and interviews with participants, it demonstrates firstly that the British High Commission in Barbados read the signs of military action correctly but were side-lined by London after the request for assistance was received from the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States. Secondly, it reveals that the idea of taking the initiative and consulting with Washington after the murder of Grenada's Prime Minister never arose and that government claims that they communicated their opposition to a military solution from the start were wrong as this only happened on the afternoon before the invasion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mosaic landscape of small-scale cropping, agroforests, and secondary forests common to steep-sloped, volcanic islands in the Caribbean provide habitats and food sources for many terrestrial bird species. Information on the diets of species living in these agroecosystems can inform conservation management and land-use decisions, and reveal the ecosystem services performed by these unique island bird communities. We obtained fecal samples from 356 individuals of 14 bird species, including 3 Lesser Antilles endemics, that occur in various agroforests, pasture, and cropping habitats on the island of Grenada, May–September 2018 and January–March 2019, and determined diet items using DNA meta-barcoding analysis. Identified food items included 14 orders and 259 genera of arthropods, and 25 orders and 98 genera of plants. We found a wide mix of arthropod and plant genera across an annual cycle in every bird species studied, including those believed to be nominally nectarivorous, frugivorous, or granivorous, supporting predictions that small-island bird populations exhibit generalist foraging. Similarly, diet composition varied among species within each study site to a similar degree that diets varied among study sites within each species further indicating opportunistic/generalist foraging. In addition, we found 26 arthropod genera and 34 plant genera that were frequently shared by 3 or more bird species, suggesting the importance of specific food resources for sustaining bird communities in these heterogeneous agricultural landscapes. We also found 4 known invertebrate crop pathogens amongst 5 bird species. Together, this study reveals the various roles that these generalist species play in agroforest habitats (e.g., crop-plant pest control, pollination, seed dispersal), and the results can be used to further explore land-use practices that best provide food resources to support this unique island bird community and the ecosystem functions they carry out. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article uses an unusual case of murder in the British, formally French, colony of Grenada in 1784 as a useful window to explore the themes of fear and dependency among planters, and complicity among enslaved and free Africans in a Caribbean slave colony at the end of the eighteenth century. The story of Korey, the enslaved nightwatchman, reprieved from the death penalty because of his worth to the plantocracy, highlights a process in the developing colony that saw large numbers of Africans in the colony employed outside of the planting regime throughout the 1780s and 1790s. By the end of the Fedon rebellion in 1795, armed Africans, some free some still enslaved, dominated the free spaces of the colony. The timing and unique circumstances of the rebellion and crucially the build up to it saw through a process in the colony that directly led to the formation of the West Indian Regiments. Grenada’s essential role in this process has been recognized but by marking the specific developments across the 1780s and 90s, we can see with more definition the interplay between planters and their fears, the military, the government, and Africans in this moment of genesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As an island endemic with a decreasing population, the critically endangered Grenada Dove Leptotila wellsi is threatened by accelerated loss of genetic diversity resulting from ongoing habitat fragmentation. Small, threatened populations are difficult to sample directly but advances in molecular methods mean that non‐invasive samples can be used. We performed the first assessment of genetic diversity of populations of Grenada Dove by (a) assessing mtDNA genetic diversity in the only two areas of occupancy on Grenada, (b) defining the number of haplotypes present at each site and (c) evaluating evidence of isolation between sites. We used non‐invasively collected samples from two locations: Mt Hartman (n = 18) and Perseverance (n = 12). DNA extraction and PCR were used to amplify 1751 bps of mtDNA from two mitochondrial markers: NADH dehydrogenase 2 (ND2) and Cytochrome b (Cyt b). Haplotype diversity (h) of 0.4, a nucleotide diversity (π) of 0.00023 and two unique haplotypes were identified within the ND2 sequences; a single haplotype was identified within the Cyt b sequences. Of the two haplotypes identified, the most common haplotype (haplotype A = 73.9%) was observed at both sites and the other (haplotype B = 26.1%) was unique to Perseverance. Our results show low mitochondrial genetic diversity and clear evidence for genetically isolated populations. The Grenada Dove needs urgent conservation action, including habitat protection and potentially augmentation of gene flow by translocation in order to increase genetic resilience and diversity with the ultimate aim of securing the long‐term survival of this critically endangered species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The need for muscle-flexing also helps explain why the United States fobbed off Grenada's requests for aid in 1979 with an offer of $5,000 yet chose to spend $134 million on the invasion and another $157 million in aid to Grenada in the five years following. Imagining alternative futures Though the airport would merely put Grenada's air capabilities on par with several other Caribbean tourist destinations, Reagan claimed it was part of a Cuban-Soviet plot to turn Grenada into a military base for exporting revolution and terrorism. On March 13, 1979, five years after Grenada's independence from Britain, the New Jewel Movement (NJM) mounted an armed attack against the increasingly erratic and authoritarian Prime Minister Eric Gairy. [Extracted from the article]

Maternal infection with Zika virus (ZIKV) is associated with a distinct pattern of birth defects, known as congenital Zika syndrome (CZS). In ZIKV-exposed children without CZS, it is often unclear whether they were protected from in utero infection and neurotropism. Early neurodevelopmental assessment is essential for detecting neurodevelopmental delays (NDDs) and prioritizing at-risk children for early intervention. We compared neurodevelopmental outcomes between ZIKV-exposed and unexposed children at 1, 3 and 4 years to assess exposure-associated NDD risk. A total of 384 mother–child dyads were enrolled during a period of active ZIKV transmission (2016–2017) in Grenada, West Indies. Exposure status was based on laboratory assessment of prenatal and postnatal maternal serum. Neurodevelopment was assessed using the Oxford Neurodevelopment Assessment, the NEPSY® Second Edition and Cardiff Vision Tests, at 12 (n = 66), 36 (n = 58) and 48 (n = 59) months, respectively. There were no differences in NDD rates or vision scores between ZIKV-exposed and unexposed children. Rates of microcephaly at birth (0.88% vs. 0.83%, p = 0.81), and childhood stunting and wasting did not differ between groups. Our results show that Grenadian ZIKV-exposed children, the majority of whom were without microcephaly, had similar neurodevelopmental outcomes to unexposed controls up to at least an age of 4 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Through a case study of three educational youth exchanges from London to the Caribbean island of Grenada in the early 1980s, this paper situates decolonisation as a site for youthful agency. Assessing official and ephemeral exchange material held in archives in London and the Caribbean alongside original oral history interviews with key actors, the paper argues that an analysis of youth exchanges as informal education spaces helps bring into focus young people's agency in decolonisation both as a historical process and conceptual undoing. While the paper asserts that exchanging produced transformative moments of becoming in which young people's global educational encounters transcended local perceptions of race, it also reveals youth exchanging to a revolutionary nation was no holiday, and that "youth exchange geographies" were governed, predetermined and impeded by the organisational labour of youth workers, fundraising initiatives, and unfolding international politics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Varieties of English in the Caribbean have been claimed to have characteristic pitch patterns. However, there is little empirical research on prosodic aspects of English in the region. This paper provides a comparative phonetic analysis of several pitch parameters (pitch level, range, dynamism, rate of change, variability in rate of change, and tone rate) in English language data from Dominica, Grenada, and Trinidad that comprises read and spontaneous speech from 243 speakers. The results show that a wide pitch range and a high degree of variability in pitch, as mentioned in previous works, are not necessarily characteristic of English in the Caribbean overall, but that there are considerable cross‐territorial prosodic differences, with English in Trinidad showing more variability than in Dominica and Grenada, particularly among female speakers. Socioprosodic variation, largely specific to Trinidad, was also identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Civil society is seen as a key actor within and for global development. However, spatial representations of civil society within the global development landscape are dominated by scale, place, and verticality, neglecting more relational understandings of civic participation. Engaging with archipelagic thinking, drawn from the work of Édouard Glissant, Derek Walcott, and others, this paper makes a case for thinking about civil society through archipelagic relational ontologies. By employing an archipelagic lens to empirical material from research with civil society groups in Barbados and Grenada, the paper explores the relational creativity and metamorphic transformations that are part of civil society action. Utilising an archipelagic lens to think about civil society organising emphasises how civil society activity is produced, performed, and operationalised through creative relational arrangements that span (and contest) dominant spatial categories. For civil society actors this 'metamorphic creativity' – the crafting of these relations, the bringing together of 'bits and pieces', and the transforming and reworking of these relations to produce new forms and spaces of civic activity – is key to sustaining civil society and their own civic identities. This illustrates the creative, yet fragile nature of civil society, concluding that through these metamorphic relations civil society actors foster new civic spaces and identities, yet civil society simultaneously may also be constituted through, and potentially (re)produce (new) hierarchies of power. Civil society is seen as a key actor within and for global development. However, spatial representations of civil society within the global development landscape tend to neglect relational understandings of civic participation. This paper engages with archipelagic thinking to explore the importance of creative relationalities for civil society organising. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) populations are experiencing significant declines and are at risk of global extinction. Sustaining reproductive success is vital to the recovery of populations. This study quantified nests and egg production between 2015–2019 on Levera Beach, Grenada and explored the association of select environmental variables with leatherback sea turtle embryonic development and hatching success rates. Annual variation was observed for the number of eggs per nest and embryo and hatching success rates. Nest location on the beach was found to be an influencing factor and development and hatching success rates decreased when nest depths were relatively shallow and when there was higher frequency of eggs with microbial growth and inspissated yolk. Relatively high temperatures recorded in a subset of nests suggest hatchling sex ratios may be skewed towards females and that increased temperatures are a risk to hatchling survival. Histopathology identified bacterial bronchopneumonia as a likely cause of morbidity and mortality in hatchlings. These findings help guide conservation strategies to support leatherback sea turtle hatchling survival. Annual monitoring of leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) nesting grounds in Grenada, West Indies has identified relatively low hatch rates compared to worldwide trends. This study investigated the impact of selected environmental variables on leatherback sea turtle embryonic development and hatching success rates on Levera Beach in Grenada between 2015–2019. The mean number of nests per year and eggs per nest were 667.6 ± 361.6 and 80.7 ± 23.0 sd, respectively. Within excavated nests, 35.6% ± 22.0 sd of eggs successfully developed embryos and 30.6% ± 22.6 sd of eggs successfully hatched. The number of eggs per nest, along with embryo and hatching success rates, differed by nesting year. Embryo development success rate was associated with nest location, and both embryo development and hatching success rates were positively associated with nest depth and negatively associated with the percentage of eggs exhibiting microbial growth and with the presence of inspissated yolk. There was no embryo development or hatchling success association with month of the nesting season, distance from the high-water mark, distance from vegetation, nor maternal carapace length. The mean nest temperature was 31.7 °C ± 1.64 sd and mean temperatures during the middle third of egg incubation suggest clutches are highly skewed towards a preponderance of female hatchlings. Histopathologic findings in hatchling mortalities included severe, acute, multifocal, heterophilic bronchopneumonia with intralesional bacteria in 4/50 (8%) hatchlings. Data from this study guide conservation strategies by identifying risk factors and further avenues of research needed to support reproductive success of leatherback sea turtles in Grenada and the greater Caribbean region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most Caribbean islands do not have air pollution surveillance programs. Those who live in these countries are exposed to ambient air pollution from a variety of sources including motor vehicles, ocean-going vessels, and Saharan dust. We conducted an air sampling exposure study in Grenada to describe daily changes in fine particulate matter (PM2.5) pollution, and during Saharan dust episodes. Further, we assessed the impacts of COVID-19 public health interventions on PM2.5 concentrations in 2020. Four fixed-site PurpleAir monitors were installed throughout Grenada, and one on the neighboring island of Carriacou. PM2.5 was measured between January 6 and December 31, 2020. We classified each of these days based on whether COVID-19 public health mitigation measures were in place or not. Descriptive analyses were performed to characterize fluctuations in PM2.5, and we assessed the impacts of public health restrictions on PM2.5 using multivariate regression. The mean daily PM2.5 concentration in 2020 was 4.4 μg/m3. During the study period, the minimum daily PM2.5 concentration was 0.7 μg/m3, and the maximum was 20.4 μg/m3. Daily mean PM2.5 concentrations more than doubled on Saharan dust days (8.5 vs 3.6 μg/m3; p < 0.05). The daily mean PM2.5 concentrations were estimated to be 1.2 μg/m3 lower when COVID-19 restrictions were in effect. Ambient PM2.5 concentrations in Grenada are relatively low compared to other countries; however, Saharan dust episodes represent an important source of exposure. Low-cost sensors provide an opportunity to increase surveillance of air pollution in the Caribbean, however their value could be enhanced with the development of correction algorithms that more closely approximate values from reference-grade monitors. Implications: This study describes daily fluctuations in ambient PM2.5 concentrations in Grenada in 2020. Overall, concentrations of PM2.5 were low; however, we found that Saharan dust events cause daily exceedances in PM2.5 above the current 24-hr limits of the World Health Organization. Moreover, the constructed models suggest that public health interventions to reduce the spread of COVID-19 reduced PM2.5 concentrations by 27%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the sources and microbiological quality of domestic water used by rural communities of Speightstown, Barbados; Carriacou, Grenada; and Nariva, Trinidad. The primary water source was harvested rainwater in Carriacou, and the public water supply for Nariva and Speightstown. Secondary water supplies of the communities came from untreated sources including rainwater, wells, boreholes and springs. E. coli was detected at higher frequencies in water from Carriacou (41.3%) and Nariva (47.4%) than Speightstown (3.6%). Generally, more untreated samples of rainwater (44.6%) and surface/ground water (58.3%) were E. coli positive than treated water obtained from the public supply (9.9%). These findings demonstrate the increased risk to residents in rural communities of the Caribbean who utilize untreated rainwater and environmental sources such as springs and wells. These results demonstrate the usefulness of traditional methods such as the compartment bag test in determining the microbiological quality of domestic water in resource-challenged rural communities of the Caribbean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives. To identify the factors contributing to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccine hesitancy in Grenada. Methods. A phenomenological study was conducted using semi-structured interviews at vaccination and pop-up testing clinics during a spike in COVID-19 cases on the island. Interview questions were developed using the health belief model related to perceived threat of COVID-19, perceived benefits of and barriers to COVID-19 vaccination, and cues to action. Data were analyzed using a deductive approach to identify themes, categories, and subcategories. Results. Twenty-five interviews were transcribed and coded. In all, 68% of participants were unvaccinated, 12% were partially vaccinated, and 20% were fully vaccinated. Data analysis revealed two main themes: facilitators and barriers. Factors more likely to encourage vaccination (facilitators) included trust in medical advice and vaccine efficacy, social responsibility, and vaccine mandates for travel, employment, and social activities. Factors hindering vaccination (barriers) included: perceived low threat of COVID-19; preference for natural remedies; concerns about contraindications because of underlying health conditions; fear; mistrust of vaccines and related messaging; vaccine accessibility; and the many different information sources. Conclusions. Overcoming vaccine hesitancy is key to combating the detrimental effects of COVID-19 in Grenada. Public health interventions and policies that address barriers and capitalize on facilitators can increase vaccine uptake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective. To document Grenadian women's knowledge about cervical cancer and human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, as well as their attitudes towards primary cervical cancer screening methods. Methods. In this qualitative study, we used focus groups in Grenada to gather information concerning women's knowledge about, attitudes towards and perceptions of screening for cervical cancer and general knowledge about HPV. Ten focus groups comprising 73 participants representing 5 of the 6 parishes in Grenada were conducted with women aged 19--59. Participants were asked about pelvic exams, Pap smears, HPV, reasons for seeking or avoiding cervical cancer screening and how different modalities of testing might affect their decision-making. Responses were then coded and organized into common themes. Results. While many respondents had heard of HPV, far fewer knew about its causative role in cervical cancer, how to prevent HPV infection or testing for the high-risk HPV types that cause almost all cases of cervical cancer. Many participants were aware that cervical cancer screening was beneficial, but numerous barriers to obtaining that screening were noted, including concerns about privacy and stigma, potential discomfort, and the cost and inconvenience involved. Conclusions. Our findings have implications for future cervical cancer screening efforts in Grenada. Central to these efforts should be a focus on educating Grenadians about the role of HPV infection in cervical cancer and the importance of early detection through screening. In addition, addressing issues of stigma and privacy are key to eliminating cervical cancer in Grenada. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Knowledge on species distributions and seasonal movement patterns within landscapes is important for understanding their ecology and roles in agroecosystems, and is critical for enabling their effective conservation and monitoring, particularly in small-island states where conservation resources are limited. We undertook bird surveys to examine species distributions across a range of agricultural land-use intensities and elevations on the Caribbean island of Grenada by collecting data over 6 repeated monthly surveys (3 wet season, 3 dry season) at sites located in a variety of habitats spread over 6–300 m elevation. We observed a gradual upslope increase in bird species diversity and abundance from the mid-wet season to the late-dry season, as well as a movement from reduced-canopy habitats to closed-canopy habitats in the dry season. The mid-elevation hillsides of Grenada consist of a diverse mosaic of closed canopy secondary forest patches, interspersed among more open agroforests and small-scale cropping and grazed areas. These agroecosystems appear to provide important habitats to birds throughout the year, especially open canopy agroforests in the wet season. We also found that open mixed agroforests contained a greater diversity of fruit, flower, and seed resources than closed canopy habitats such as secondary forest, cacao agroforests, young secondary forests, or dry forest scrub; and that plant food diversity was highest in the wet season. However, bird abundance significantly increased in closed canopy forest habitats during the dry season, suggesting that intact canopy forests provide important dry season habitat for many Grenadian birds, which may be particularly important for species in drier lowland areas experiencing more intensive agricultural land use and urban and resort development. Overall, this research demonstrates the importance of maintaining the functional connectivity of treed habitats at local and landscape scales for species conservation, as well as the contribution of diverse, small-scale agriculture to maintaining small-island bird communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The gastrointestinal tract of poultry is a potential source of Campylobacter jejuni. Here, the prevalence, risk factors, antimicrobial susceptibility profile and genetic relationship of C. jejuni were studied in broilers from farms and meat from live bird markets (LBMs) and super shops (SS). Pooled cloacal samples were obtained from farms in six districts of Bangladesh between June 2019 and March 2020. Pooled meat samples were obtained from LBMs and SS in the Chattogram district. Microbial culture, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), antimicrobial susceptibility tests were used to detect multidrug‐resistant C. jejuni. A positive PCR amplicon was validated by mapA partial gene sequencing and subsequent phylogenetic analysis. In total, 12.5% (95% CI: 8.5–17.7%) of farms (N = 216) and 27.1% (95% CI: 15.28–41.85%) of LBMs and SS (N = 48) tested positive for C. jejuni. Moreover, 98% of the isolates were multidrug‐resistant, with 86% resistant to five or more antimicrobial groups. Multivariable logistic regression analysis showed a downtime of <14 days, no separate footwear for shed access, and more than one person entering the sheds were significantly associated with C. jejuni colonization. Phylogenetic analysis revealed a strong relationship between C. jejuni strains obtained in Bangladesh and strains isolated in India, South Africa and Grenada from humans, pigs and bats. This study revealed significant contamination of broiler meat with Campylobacter spp. and C. jejuni. Potential sources of contamination and anthropogenic factors associated with the alarming prevalence of C. jejuni identified in this study would aid in reducing the growing risks of broiler‐associated pathogens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Extreme natural hazard events in the Caribbean continue to result in major adverse consequences. Studies of disaster experiences have identified operational deficiencies that limited the effectiveness of disaster management policies in live emergencies. This paper reports on a study of the implementation characteristics of specific public disaster risk reduction and response measures in two Caribbean Small Island Developing States (SIDS), Trinidad and Tobago and Grenada, which may impact the success of these measures. The purpose of this paper is to examine these characteristics and their potential impacts. Design/methodology/approach: The authors collected data on specific aspects of disaster risk management (DRM) policy implementation from policy documents and interviews with public DRM agencies. A sample of business entities also provided data on their interactions with public risk management measures. The data focussed on operational aspects of implementation to identify likely impacts on hazard event outcomes. Findings: The study identifies implementation deficiencies that may hamper achievement of risk reduction objectives and limit the effectiveness of emergency response. Research limitations/implications: The findings may be instructive for other Caribbean SIDS which share similar economic and social characteristics, natural hazard exposures and potential catastrophic outcomes. Practical implications: The findings suggest tactical areas of focus to enhance the operationalisation of policy. Social implications: Improved operational effectiveness will support the efforts of Caribbean SIDS to reduce the scale of adverse outcomes on people and property. Originality/value: The findings of this study broaden the scope of Caribbean disaster studies to provide an insight into operational weaknesses that may be recognised and addressed prior to hazard events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Toxoplasma gondii is a widespread zoonotic protozoan parasite capable of infecting all warm‐blooded animals. Although the genotypes of T. gondii in pigs have been reported worldwide, there is no information on the genotypes and diversity of T. gondii in pigs in Grenada, West Indies. Objectives: The aims of the present study were to isolate, genotype and determine the diversity of T. gondii genotypes in pigs. Methods: We carried out a modified agglutination test (MAT) on blood from 149 pig hearts collected from a local meat market. Myocardial tissue homogenate from pigs that tested positive for T. gondii was homogenized and inoculated into mice for isolation of the parasite. We collected mouse tissues and extracted DNA for genotyping based on 11 polymerase chain reaction‐restriction fragment length polymorphism markers (SAG1, SAG2, alt. SAG2, SAG 3, BTUB, GRA6, L358, PK1, C22‐8, C 29‐2 and Apico). Results: Out of the 149 pig hearts, 31 (20.8%) tested positive for T. gondii on MAT. Bioassays in mice yielded 12 isolates designated TgpgGr1 to TgpgGr12. Molecular characterisation of T. gondii revealed four genotypes as follows: ToxoDB #2‐clonal type III (seven isolates); ToxoDB #7 (three isolates); ToxoDB #13 (one isolate); ToxoDB #30 (1 isolate). Overall, ToxoDB #2 was the most common (58%). Toxo database (DB) # 13, which causes interstitial pneumonia in affected mice, has also been reported. Conclusion: The genetic diversity of T. gondii in pigs in Grenada is lower than that in other surrounding Caribbean areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

What is the role of international law in foreign-policy decision-making? In particular, why do leaders justify policy decisions with appeals to international law and why do these appeals make the references that they do? This paper combines scholarship on the role of justifications and the permissive power of international law, theorizing that decisionmakers will seek out international legal justifications over justifications that reference non-legal claims. These justifications are seen as particularly important in the contemporary world, reflecting the legalized nature of international relations today. In particular, decision-makers will especially prefer to reference codified international agreements over customary international law, seeing a particular value to referencing a written text even if it is not as directly connected to the issue at hand. These more general justifications are, in turn, preferred over non-legal justifications. This reflects the importance of international law in international relations—in a deeply legalized system actors feel compelled to portray their behaviors as legal, even if these justifications are tenuous or if pursuing them is time and resource consuming. The United Kingdom's 1956 intervention in the Suez and the United States' 1983 intervention in Grenada—are used to test these assumptions. Both cases support the theory: decision-makers prefer legal justifications, pursuing these over other options. In addition, decision-makers appear to prefer legal arguments built on codified law, keeping with the theoretical predictions. These findings deepen our understanding of how actors understand and use international law, its role in justifications, and the legalized nature of international relations today. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: RNA interference (RNAi) is a biological process that can be used as a powerful tool to manipulate mosquito-transmitted viruses. As our knowledge of RNAi in the mosquito increases, so do the targets to interrupt mosquito life cycles and, therefore, their burden on human health. This study provides the miRNA profiles of two major mosquito vectors of arthropod-borne pathogens in Grenada, Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus, 1762) (Diptera: Culicidae) and Culex quinquefasciatus Say, 1823 (Diptera: Culicidae). Mosquito-borne arboviruses, such as dengue virus, West Nile virus, Zika virus and yellow fever virus, impose a tremendous cost on the health of populations around the world. As a result, much effort has gone into the study of the impact of these viruses on human infections. Comparatively less effort, however, has been made to study the way these viruses interact with mosquitoes themselves. As ingested arboviruses infect their midgut and subsequently other tissue, the mosquito mounts a multifaceted innate immune response. RNA interference, the central intracellular antiviral defense mechanism in mosquitoes and other invertebrates can be induced and modulated through outside triggers (small RNAs) and treatments (transgenesis or viral-vector delivery). Accordingly, modulation of this facet of the mosquito's immune system would thereby suggest a practical strategy for vector control. However, this requires a detailed understanding of mosquitoes' endogenous small RNAs and their effects on the mosquito and viral proliferation. This paper provides an up-to-date overview of the mosquito's immune system along with novel data describing miRNA profiles for Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasiatus in Grenada, West Indies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Small island economies are highly dependent on food imports. Self‐sufficiency through food localization is therefore often advocated. Can a small Caribbean island nation localize its food system? To answer this question, we conducted socio‐metabolic research on four Caribbean nations: Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, and Jamaica. Derived indicators from a diachronic biomass flow accounting from 1961 to 2019 suggest a declining trend in local food production for all cases. While in Barbados and Jamaica this decline already began in the 1960s, for Dominica and Grenada, this did not start until the late 1970s–1980s. The physical trade balance of biomass is similar across all cases: from net exporters at the start of the study period to net importers as countries developed, albeit at different time periods. By disaggregating biomass flow data to crop level, Barbados and Jamaica indicate a trend that is moving away from food localization, while Dominica and Grenada appear to be modestly moving toward localization in recent years. Given the many resource security challenges small island economies face, this study provides a biophysical perspective to the Caribbean's food security debate and questions the extent to which food localization is possible in a small island context, and whether other strategies are urgently needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many young children in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) are at risk of developmental delays. Early child development (ECD) interventions have been shown to improve outcomes, but few interventions have targeted culturally normative violence such as corporal punishment (CP). We partnered with an existing community-based ECD organization in the LMIC of Grenada to implement a parallel controlled-trial single-blind responsive caregiving intervention that educates parents about the developing brain and teaches alternatives to corporal punishment while building parental self-regulation skills and strengthening social-emotional connections between parent and child. Parents and primary caregivers with children under age two were eligible. Allocation to the intervention and waitlist control arms was unblinded and determined by recruitment into the program. Neurodevelopment was assessed by blinded testers when each child turned age two. Primary comparison consisted of neurodevelopmental scores between the intervention and waitlist control groups (Clinicaltrials.gov registration # NCT04697134). Secondary comparison consisted of changes in maternal mental health, home environment, and attitudes towards CP. Children in the intervention group (n = 153) had significantly higher scores than children in the control group (n = 151) on measures of cognition (p =.022), fine motor (p <.0001), gross motor (p =.015), and language development (p =.013). No difference in secondary outcomes, including CP, was detected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Lesser Antilles volcanic arc is known for its magmatic diversity and unusually abundant plutonic xenoliths. Xenoliths from Petit St. Vincent (Grenadines' archipelago) are particularly interesting because of their textural and petrogenetic range. Here we combine petrographic observations, Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD) analysis, major and trace element chemistry of xenoliths and lavas and geochemical and thermal modelling to explore the construction of arc crust beneath Petit St. Vincent. Petit St. Vincent xenoliths are dominated by calcic plagioclase, clinopyroxene and amphibole, and can be divided into two main categories, igneous and meta-igneous. Igneous xenoliths typically have cumulate textures; meta-igneous xenoliths range texturally from those that preserve vestiges of primary magmatic fabrics to intensely deformed varieties characterised by grain-size reduction and foliation development. Meta-igneous xenoliths also contain the most calcic plagioclase (An98–100). The presence of both meta-igneous and igneous xenoliths provides evidence for reworking of older arc crust and antecedent igneous intrusions. The latter have a protolith composition similar to high-MgO, low-Sr picrites and high-Ca, high-Sr ankaramites from the neighbouring islands of Petite Martinique and Grenada. The meta-igneous xenoliths derive from older, mafic arc crust present at the onset of subduction. Trace element chemistry and EBSD analyses of meta-igneous xenoliths are consistent with a complex history of re-melting and deformation mediated by chlorine-bearing H2O rich fluids (including melts). Thermal modelling supports crustal reworking through repeated magma intrusions and indicates that the observed thermal structure and thickness of crust beneath Petit St. Vincent could have developed on a timescale of approximately 4 million years at rates compatible with the regional arc magma flux. Based on evidence from thermodynamic models and exhumed ancient arc crust sections, Collins et al. (Nature Geoscience , 13, 331–338, 2020) have proposed that water-fluxed melting may be an important aspect of deep arc crust sections world-wide. Textures and mineralogy of xenoliths from Petit St. Vincent, including their characteristic high-An plagioclase, testify to such a process beneath an active, intra-oceanic arc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Canine transmissible venereal tumour (CTVT) is a naturally occurring neoplasia affecting dogs worldwide. Previous CTVT studies in Grenada were limited to case records of dogs with neoplastic conditions at a veterinary diagnostic laboratory. Objectives: The present retrospective study aimed to determine the occurrence and risk factors of CTVT in a wider population of owned dogs presented to a university‐affiliated veterinary hospital between 2008 and 2018. Methods: Data on the age, breed, gender, and gonadectomy status were retrieved from an electronic database and analyzed using logistic regression. Results: Of the 7180 dogs presented during the period, 102 dogs (1.4%) were diagnosed with CTVT. A higher predisposition was observed in Grenadian pothounds (odds ratio [OR] = 22.8, 95% confidence interval [CI] 10.3–50.4; p < 0.001) and mixed‐breed dogs (OR = 9.2, 95% CI 4.1–20.7; p < 0.001) in comparison to the purebreds. Neutered dogs (OR = 2.2, 95% CI 1.4–3.3; p < 0.001) were at an increased risk of CTVT than intact dogs. Age and gender were not identified as significant risk factors. Conclusions: The percentage of dogs with CTVT in this study represents a crude estimate of the CTVT prevalence in the owned dog population in Grenada. Further studies including both owned and free‐roaming dogs are required for a more accurate estimation of the CTVT prevalence in the region. Our results indicate that breed and gonadectomy status are significant risk factors for the occurrence of CTVT in Grenada. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: While microcephaly is a significant adverse outcome of prenatal exposure to the Zika virus (ZIKV), subtle malformations of cortical development (MCD) have been observed in Zika-exposed children (ZEC), including delays in language, cognition, and motor domains, and visual acuity deficits. Interventions within the first 1,000 days of life can significantly improve developmental outcomes. This study examined a 12-week Responsive Caregiving Intervention on neurodevelopmental outcomes in 24-30-month-old ZEC. Methodology/Principal findings: A randomized controlled trial was implemented in Grenada, West Indies using an existing ZIKV cohort surveillance study. When children in that study turned 24 months, baseline child neurodevelopmental measures and caregiver interviews were administered. Caregivers who agreed to participate in the 12-week Responsive Caregiving Intervention, implemented when children were 24–30 months of age, were randomly assigned to the Intervention or Waitlist Control group. Children in both groups were re-assessed on the neurodevelopmental measures post-intervention. Conclusions/Significance: 233 children from the ZIKV surveillance study met inclusion criteria, of which n = 80 declined participation, n = 42 did not complete the Intervention, and n = 72 missed follow-up assessments given strict timelines in the study design. The final sample for analysis was N = 13 children in the Intervention group and N = 26 children in the Control group. A GEE model analysis showed significantly higher language (p = 0.021) and positive behaviour (p = 0.005) scores for children in the Intervention group compared to the Control group. The Intervention had a medium effect on child language (d = 0.66) and a large effect on positive behaviour (d = 0.83). A 12-week Responsive Caregiving Intervention Programme significantly improves language and positive behaviour scores in 30-month-old normocephalic children who were exposed to ZIKV in utero. The programme provides an option for mothers of ZIKV-exposed children who are seeking an evidence-based neurodevelopmental intervention regardless of known impact of the virus on cortical formation. Trial registration: The study was registered with clinicaltrials.gov (NCT04697147). Author summary: The relationship between Zika virus exposure during pregnancy and microcephaly (abnormally small head size) in infants is well known. Prenatal Zika virus exposure can also cause more subtle impacts in infant language, cognition, and motor function, and visual acuity, even in the absence of microcephaly. Interventions in the first 1,000 days of life can significantly improve these outcomes in at-risk children. Few studies have been carried out with the aim of improving neurodevelopment in Zika-exposed children. The present study utilized a randomized controlled trial to examine the impact of a 12-week Intervention on neurodevelopmental outcomes in 24-30-month-old Zika-exposed children. Analysis showed significantly higher language and positive behaviour scores among children in the Intervention group compared to children in the Control group. The Intervention used in this study is relatively low-cost and easy to implement. The application of interventions from the global early child development field has implications for governments, policy makers, public health officials, and parents of Zika-exposed children who are seeking effective interventions to mitigate the risk of neurodevelopment delays in those children. The fact that these much-needed interventions already exist and can be rolled out relatively quickly and effectively is encouraging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reading comprehension is the core element of the reading process. The aim of this study was to examine the use of nationally-endorsed instructional strategies in, and current teacher attitudes and beliefs towards, reading comprehension instruction in a Grade Four classroom in Grenada. Participants included five teachers and their respective classes, totalling 136 students. Multiple methods were used such as non-participant classroom observations, document review, and semi-structured interviews. Findings reveal that little explicit reading comprehension instruction occurred as teachers mainly engaged students in activities that provided information on the content of text, activities that assessed this content, and drills. Instructional strategies utilised lacked components of the gradual release of responsibility model that literacy researchers have recommended which can favourably impact educational theory practice (Pearson & Galagher, 1983: Donaldson, 2011). Nevertheless, teachers held strong favourable attitudes towards reading comprehension instruction as they recognise its value and importance, and also believe they can effectively deliver related instruction. Yet, they seemingly lacked knowledge about current available instructional strategies and approaches. Recommendations include the urgent need for curriculum intervention, at various levels and for different stakeholders, and renewal in the form of quality, relevant and interesting reading comprehension instructional strategies, materials, practices and approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ancylostoma ceylanicum hookworms are recognized agents of human infection in the Asia-Pacific region. We investigated prevalence of zoonotic hookworm infections in dogs in Grenada in 2021; 40.8% were infected by hookworms, including Ancylostoma ceylanicum. Surveillance of this parasite in dogs and humans is needed in tropical/subtropical countries in the Americas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most research on how birds adapt to urban environments has been conducted in cities in developed (Global North) countries, which differ structurally and acoustically from cities in developing (Global South) countries; therefore, optimal behavioural strategies of animals living in urban landscapes may also differ based on the economic status of the country in which they live. We studied Grenada's house wren population (Troglodytes aedon grenadensis) to investigate song plasticity of this subspecies in response to urbanisation. Grenada, a Small Island Developing State in the Caribbean, is under increasing pressure from tourism, urbanisation, and climate change, and little is known about its avian community. We recorded 33 Grenada house wrens at five urban and five rural sites across Grenada, and analysed effects of urbanisation using generalised estimating equations. Grenada house wrens used a mix of strategies to compensate for urbanisation. In urban habitats, house wrens sang shorter introductions, faster trills, and increased the low frequencies of the introduction and the whole song. Grenada's house wrens use some unusual song alterations in urban environments, emphasising the importance of studying animal behaviour in Small Island Developing States to help us understand the unique anthropogenic pressures faced by species in these vulnerable regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article provides evidence of the food system challenges and structural barriers faced by women farmers and food producers in the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States. The aim of the piece is to add to critical literatures on political economy, development and food systems in the Majority World via recognizing the political agency of rural grassroots women in the Caribbean. To do so, we focus on the role that social reproduction has in the lives of working Caribbean women who are engaged in agricultural production. The analysis we offer was generated via a mix‐method project that included 111 farmers and agro‐processors from Grenada, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent and the Grenadines. We deliberately centre the perspectives of Afrodescendant rural women. Our study reveals the main barriers faced by women in agriculture are lack of access to land, concessions and capital; non‐gender responsive Agricultural Extension Services; an absence of national and sectorial gender policies; and ongoing dismissals of the time and effort that goes into unwaged socially reproductive labour. In illustrating these realities, we cast light on how the barriers faced by women food producers in the OECS are inextricably linked to persistent colonial‐plantation relations, patriarchal social norms and liberal‐capitalist logics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seabirds are among the most endangered avian groups, with populations declining worldwide because of various threats, including invasive nest predators. Similar decreasing trends are occurring in the Southern Grenadines; however, the causes of decline remain uncertain, although non‐native rats have been suspected. Therefore, our objective was to determine whether non‐native rats are present on five Southern Grenadine islands that harbor seabird colonies, during May–July 2014–2017, using four methods (chew cards, tunnels, cameras, and questionnaires). Les Tantes East and Lee Rocks were the only two islands where cameras detected black rats (Rattus rattus). Although rat occupancy was low (0.125 ± 0.061) and the number of individuals and nesting attempts increased (except in 2017) for most species, the low detection probability and small number of nests prevented any inference about rat impact on seabirds. Rats might have affected seabird colonies, but other factors, such as seabird harvest, prey availability, or climatic fluctuations, could have also driven previous seabird population declines in the Southern Grenadines. However, non‐native rats are present and future research should focus on estimating their density and distribution on these and other islands of the region before an appropriate rat eradication program can be implemented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To evaluate pregnancy and neonatal outcomes, disease severity, and mother‐to‐child transmission of pregnant women with Chikungunya infection (CHIKV). Design: Retrospective observational study. Setting: Grenada. Population: Women who gave birth during a Chikungunya outbreak between January 2014 and September 2015 were eligible. Methods: This descriptive study investigated 731 mother‐infant pairs who gave birth during a CHIKV outbreak. Women and infants underwent serological testing for CHIKV by ELISA. Main outcome measures: Primary outcomes: composite pregnancy complication (abruption, vaginal bleeding, preterm labour/cervical incompetence, cesarean delivery for fetal distress/abruption/placental abnormality or delivery for fetal distress) and composite neonatal morbidity. Results: Of 416 mother‐infant pairs, 150 (36%) had CHIKV during pregnancy, 135 (33%) had never had CHIKV, and 131 (31%) had CHIKV outside of pregnancy. Mean duration of joint pain was shorter among women infected during pregnancy (μ = 898 days, σ = 277 days) compared with infections outside of pregnancy (μ = 1064 days, σ = 244 days) (P < 0.0001). Rates of pregnancy complications (RR = 0.76, P = 0.599), intrapartum complications (RR = 1.50, P = 0.633), and neonatal outcomes were otherwise similar. Possible mother‐to‐child transmission occurred in two (1.3%) mother‐infant pairs and two of eight intrapartum infections (25%). Conclusion: CHIKV infection during pregnancy may be protective against long‐term joint pain sequelae that are often associated with acute CHIKV infection. Infection during pregnancy did not appear to pose a risk for pregnancy complications or neonatal health, but maternal infection just prior to delivery might have increased risk of mother‐to‐child transmission of CHIKV. Chikungunya infection did not increase risk of pregnancy complications or adverse neonatal outcomes, unless infection was just prior to delivery. Chikungunya infection did not increase risk of pregnancy complications or adverse neonatal outcomes, unless infection was just prior to delivery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Can mitigation of the spread and transmission of COVID-19 cases on islands, especially in the Caribbean, be attributed to the fact that they are just that: islands? As the corona crisis escalated in 2020, island authorities initially were able to keep COVID-19 cases low and mitigate their spread by implementing unprecedented actions, foremost among them border closures. However, as the realities of economic stresses surfaced, due to the decline in tourism, especially in the Caribbean, the need to balance COVID-19 spread and economic propriety posed a challenge. In this regard, the corona crisis illuminated spatial notions of islandness: boundedness, smallness, isolation and fragmentation. This perspective essay explores islandness in the context of the actions taken in the case study tri-island state of Grenada, Carriacou and Petite Martinique. Being a tri-island state, the nuances of islandness, experienced in an archipelagic context (an archipelago within the Caribbean archipelago) are emphasized. The paper chronicles the measures, issues and challenges of the case islands during the period between 13 March 2020 and 30 January 2021 and juxtaposes them against other actions in other countries and theories of islandness. It is hoped that this paper will contribute to and champion the field of island studies, especially within the Caribbean region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rising incidence and consequences of natural disasters, global economic crises, climate change, and socio-political upheavals have raised interest in resilience, particularly in small island economies. Their small size and high tourism-dependency make these small island states more vulnerable to such disruptions. Hence, understanding resilience or adaptive capacity to withstand shocks is fundamental to their sustainable development. The emerging literature uses the Adaptive Cycle Model to qualitatively analyse resilience through the evolution of tourism destinations. Nevertheless, the absence of quantitative studies using the Adaptive Cycle Model makes it a daunting task to adequately advise policymakers about the scope and scale of intervention necessary to facilitate the rebuilding of a stronger tourism industry. We, therefore, pioneer the use of Markov Switching Autoregressive Model to test the model's applicability using four decades of data on tourist arrivals in two Caribbean destinations, Barbados and Grenada. The results reveal untapped opportunities for transformation and regeneration in both countries' tourism industries, but highlight sharp contrast in their resilience capability. Grenada exhibits greater resilience as its adverse shocks, though deeper, are relatively transitory, while Barbados despite experiencing fewer external shocks faces prolonged repercussions from global recessions. For small islands, we conclude that the factors impacting lower resilience are the industry's management deficiencies, inadequate cohesion among stakeholders, and lack of innovation. Overall, the findings present a modelling framework for tourism-dependent economies to determine how quickly they recover from major stress events, the associated strategies necessary to strengthen tourism resilience, and the potential to innovate in the tourism industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Providing the first extended analysis of Audre Lorde's critique of the 1983 U.S. invasion of Grenada, this essay argues that Lorde's critique models a form of anti-imperial consciousness that is still morally and politically instructive. Anti-imperial consciousness entails examining oneself for complicities with empire's ravages, on the one hand, and solidarities with empire's subjects, on the other. Lorde aims to generate in her readers (1) a sense of horror at the ways they may be morally implicated in U.S. imperial injustice and (2) a more intense identification with empire's non-U.S. victims. Lorde's goal is to free her audience from what she calls the "mistaken mirage of patriotism" and propel them to anti-imperial action. Illuminating Lorde's economic socialism and anti-imperialist internationalism—two subjects still overshadowed by her more famous work on anger, the erotic, and the master's tools—the essay contributes to the ongoing elaboration of the Afro-modern tradition of political thought. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In scombroid poisoning, a seafood-associated disease, consumption of fish that contains high levels of histamine results in allergy-like symptoms that range from mild to occasionally severe. To date, there is no published information on scombroid poisoning from Selar crumenophthalmus on the Caribbean island of Grenada, West Indies. S. crumenophthalmus is of particular interest because it is a common and heavily consumed fish that has been implicated in scombroid poisoning in Hawaii. Preliminary data on S. crumenophthalmus in Grenada have demonstrated the presence of Photobacterium damselae, a bacterium associated with scombroid poisoning. The present study further tested S. crumenophthalmus purchased in Grenada for factors that would indicate the potential for scombroid poisoning, including increased histamine levels in fish muscle and DNA evidence of bacteria associated with scombroid poisoning. Histamine levels between 7,160 and 66,688 ppm were found after temperature abuse at 378C for 19 h; this far exceeds the acceptable limit for the United States (50 ppm) and the European Union (100 to 200 ppm). Even after 4 h of incubation at ambient temperature (28.98C) during a time-point study, histamine levels exceeded U.S. acceptable limits (.50 ppm), and five samples used for temperature-abuse studies had elevated histamine levels (ranging from 141 to 2,510 ppm) at 0 h. PCR and sequence analysis of bacteria in temperature-abused fish identified P. damselae and Morganella morganii, which are histamine-producing bacteria known to be implicated in scombroid poisoning. These results suggest the potential for scombroid poisoning in Grenada and the need for promoting awareness about this disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Neuropsychological assessment of preschool children is essential for early detection of delays and referral for intervention prior to school entry. This is especially relevant in low-and middle-income countries (LMICs), which are disproportionately impacted by micronutrient deficiencies and teratogenic exposures. There are limited options for assessment of preschool learning and memory, developed and validated in resource-limited regions. The Grenada Learning and Memory Scale (GLAMS) was created for use in the Caribbean using an indigenous "ground-up" approach, with feedback from regional stakeholders at various stages of development. The GLAMS contains two subtests - a verbal list-learning task, which imagines a trip to the shop to buy culturally familiar items, and a face-name associative learning task using locally-drawn faces of Caribbean children. There are two versions: a 4-item version for 3-year-olds and a 6-item version for 4 and 5-year-olds. Here we present descriptive data and psychometric features for the GLAMS from an initial preschool sample. Participants and Methods: Participants were recruited from a social-emotional intervention study (SGU IRB#14099) in Grenada between 2019-2021. Children were between 36 and 72 months of age, primarily English-speaking, and had no known history of neurodevelopmental disorders. Trained Early Childhood Assessors administered the GLAMS and NEPSY-II in public preschools and homes across Grenada. Exploratory descriptive statistics characterized participant sociodemographics and test score distributions. Spearman correlations, MannWhitney U, and Kruskal-Wallis tests examined the impact of sociodemographics on test scores. Internal reliability was assessed with coefficient alpha. NEPSY-II subtests were used to assess convergent validity, with the prediction that the highest correlations would be observed for NEPSY-II Sentence Repetition. Test engagement (as reflected by "zero-learning", "some learning", and "positive learning curves") was assessed across each age bracket (in 6-month increments). We assessed and summarized barriers to engagement qualitatively. Results: The sample consisted of 304 children (152 males,152 females). Participants were predominantly Afro-Caribbean and Indo-Caribbean. Parent education and household income (Mdn=$370-740 USD per month) were consistent with the general population. GLAMS internal consistency was reliable (a=0.713). There were age effects on list-learning (rs=0.51; p<0.001), list recall (rs=0.51; p<0.001), face-name learning (rs=0.30;p<0.001), and face-name recall (rs=0.25; p<0.001). There were gender effects on list-learning (p=0.02) and list recall (p=0.01) but not face-name learning or recall. All GLAMS subtests were correlated with NEPSY Sentence Repetition (rs=0.22-0.34; p<0.001). There was sufficient sampling of males and females across all 6 age brackets. As age increased, a higher proportion of children showed a positive learning curve (and fewer "zero-scores") on verbal learning (X2 =30.88, p<0.001) and face-name learning (X2=22.19, p=0.014), demonstrating increased task engagement as children mature. There were various qualitative observations of why children showed "zero-scores", ranging from environmental distractions to anxiety and inattention. Conclusions: As far as we know, the GLAMS is the first preschool measure of learning and memory developed indigenously from within the Caribbean. It shows reliable internal consistency, expected age and gender effects and convergent validity. These initial results are encouraging and support continued efforts to establish test-retest and inter-rater reliability. Plans include validation in clinical samples, scale-up to other Caribbean countries, and eventual adaptation across global LMICs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using cross-sectional secondary data from the MNA-SF survey, this study assessed associations between age, gender, and type of environment of older adults in residential care and their nutritional status in Grenada. Participants were 177 nursing home residents (mean age 83.67; 59.7% female) in government-owned and government-assisted nursing homes. Approximately 28% of the residents were well nourished with about 72% either at risk for malnutrition or malnourished. Age was significantly and negatively related to, and gender was significantly and positively related to nutritional status. The type of environment of the nursing home did not yield any predictive value. Female residents are at a greater risk than males for malnutrition in residential care and as such recommendations should be tailored to individual and institutional needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As vulnerable Small Island Developing States (SIDS), disaster management is a crucial part of the region's development. However, the inclusion of emerging technologies such as social media has been overlooked. This research evaluates misinformation, social media, and disaster management in Grenada. The study critically examines how misinformation (the unintentional spread of inaccurate information) disseminated over social media (Facebook, WhatsApp and Twitter) can both, directly and indirectly, affect the efficiency of the disaster management process in Grenada. The research uses Dervin's sense-making approach to understand why some users on these platforms, feel inclined to use misinformation before and during a disaster. The results show that misinformation contributes to the Grenadian respondents' sense-making, by compensating for the lack of timely information from the relevant authority. It was also found, that misinformation complicates the disaster management process by creating unnecessary panic, wasting resources, and undermining the authority of the disaster management team. The study presents a unique opener for how social media can be included in a nation's disaster management plans. Como pequeños estados insulares en desarrollo vulnerables, la gestión de desastres es una parte fundamental del desarrollo de la región. Sin embargo, se ha pasado por alto la inclusión de tecnologías emergentes como las redes sociales. Esta investigación evalúa la desinformación, las redes sociales y la gestión de desastres en Granada. El estudio examina críticamente cómo la información errónea (la difusión involuntaria de información inexacta) difundida a través de las redes sociales (Facebook, WhatsApp y Twitter) puede afectar, directa e indirectamente, la eficiencia del proceso de gestión de desastres en Granada. La investigación utiliza el enfoque de creación de sentido de Dervin para comprender por qué algunos usuarios de estas plataformas se sienten inclinados a utilizar información errónea antes y durante un desastre. Los resultados muestran que la desinformación contribuye a [End Page 29] la comprensión de los encuestados granadinos, al compensar la falta de información oportuna de la autoridad competente. También se encontró que la información errónea complica el proceso de gestión de desastres al crear pánico innecesario, desperdiciar recursos y socavar la autoridad del equipo de gestión de desastres. El estudio presenta una apertura única sobre cómo se pueden incluir las redes sociales en los planes de gestión de desastres de una nación. En tant que petits états insulaires en développement vulnérables, la gestion des catastrophes est un élément crucial du développement de la région. Cependant, l'inclusion de technologies émergentes telles que les médias sociaux a été négligée. Cette recherche évalue la désinformation, les médias sociaux et la gestion des catastrophes à Grenade. L'étude examine de manière critique comment la désinformation (la diffusion involontaire d'informations inexactes) diffusée sur les médias sociaux (Facebook, WhatsApp et Twitter) peut à la fois, directement et indirectement, affecter l'efficacité du processus de gestion des catastrophes à la Grenade. La recherche utilise l'approche sense-making du Dervin pour comprendre pourquoi certains utilisateurs de ces plates-formes se sentent enclins à utiliser de la désinformation avant et pendant une catastrophe. Les résultats montrent que la désinformation contribue au raisonnement des répondants grenadiens, en compensant le manque d'informations opportunes de la part de l'autorité compétente. Il a également été constaté que la désinformation complique le processus de gestion des catastrophes en créant une panique inutile, en gaspillant des ressources et en sapant l'autorité de l'équipe de gestion des catastrophes. L'étude présente une ouverture unique sur la façon dont les médias sociaux peuvent être inclus dans les plans de gestion des catastrophes d'un pays. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aim: Salmonella enterica causes enteric disease in mammals and may potentially be transmitted from marine turtles that shed the pathogen in the environment. Marine turtle-associated human salmonellosis is a potential public health concern in Grenada, as the island supports populations of leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea), hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata), and green turtles (Chelonia mydas) that interface with veterinarians and conservation workers, the local population, and the thousands of visitors that frequent the island yearly. To date, the prevalence of S. enterica has only been examined in a small subset of marine turtles in the Caribbean and no studies have been conducted in Grenada. The aim of this study was to quantify the prevalence of S. enterica in leatherback, hawksbill and green turtles in Grenada, characterize phenotypes and DNA profiles, and explore the potential risk to human health in the region. Materials and Methods: A total of 102 cloacal swabs were obtained from nesting leatherback turtles and foraging hawksbill and green turtles. Samples were cultured on enrichment and selective media and isolates were phenotypically characterized using serotyping, pulsed-phase gel electrophoresis, and antibiotic susceptibility. Enrichment broths were additionally screened by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using S. enterica-specific primers. Results: S. enterica was cultured from 15/57 (26.3%) leatherback turtles, 0/28 hawksbill, and 0/17 green turtles. This included S. enterica serovars Montevideo, S. I:4,5,12:i:-, Salmonella Typhimurium, Salmonella Newport, S. I:6,7:-:-, and S. I:4,5,12:-:-. Five/15 leatherback turtles carried multiple serovars. Eight pulsotype groups were identified with multiple clustering; however, there was no clear association between pulsotype group and serotype profile. Five/71 isolates showed resistance to streptomycin or ampicillin. Twenty-one/57 leatherback turtles, 14/28 hawksbill turtles, and 8/17 green turtles tested positive for S. enterica by quantitative PCR. Conclusion: Nesting leatherback turtles actively shed S. enterica and poses a risk for zoonosis; however, the presence of viable pathogen in green and hawksbill species is unclear. These findings help elucidate the role of marine turtles as potential sources of zoonotic S. enterica and provide baseline data for one health research in Grenada and the wider Caribbean region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Market research has shown that the demand for increasing essential oils, fragrances and flavours in aromatherapy, and food and beverages, is expected to remain a key driving factor in the global marketplace. This could effectively double to about US$15b by 2025 from about US$7b to US$8b as estimated in 2018. Additionally, the Oleoresin market was estimated to be about US$1.2b in 2014, increasing to US$1.7b in 2025. The Eastern Caribbean has a long history of essential oil production, specifically bay oil in Dominica, nutmeg oil in Grenada and anise oil in Trinidad. Unfortunately, the bay oil and nutmeg oil operations have been negatively affected by hurricanes and the anise oil operation has been closed down. Due to the buoyancy of global markets in both essential oil and oleoresin markets, it is appropriate to bring these traditional industries back into full production, and to expand the range of products to be marketed. The potential of this expansion was investigated using an in-depth evaluation of the 5 stages of the complex supply chain in the small island states, namely: 1) Agricultural production of raw material, 2) Extraction of the crude essential oil/oleoresin by steam distillation/supercritical fluid extraction, 3) Transportation of the crude extracts to a separation plant to recover valuable components, 4) Transportation of the valuable components for final consumer products to be produced and packaged, and 5) Marketing of the final consumer products. The potential for introducing new products has identified the additional crops which could be considered for commercial exploitation: root crops (turmeric, vetiver), shrubs (basil, hot peppers), trees (ylang ylang). The analysis has led to a number of conclusions. Firstly, management of agricultural production is key to the success of the operation. Secondly, steam distillation extraction can only produce essential oils, whereas supercritical fluid extraction can extract both essential oils and oleoresins, but at a rather higher capital cost. Finally, there would be a move towards major production and distribution of commercial products after the new businesses are established. These new businesses would contribute to the fulfillment of a sustainable supply of crops to the process plant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Grenada is a small, resource‐limited Caribbean country with a high incidence of sickle cell disease (SCD). Since little is known about the challenges facing individuals living with SCD in the West Indies, we sought to assess barriers to healthcare and the impact of SCD on quality of life in Grenada. Methods: Both adults aged 18+ (n = 19) and caregivers of children aged 2–17 (n = 26) completed validated survey measures regarding barriers to care and quality of life, along with a genetics knowledge questionnaire. Caregivers also completed a caregiver burden scale. Survey scores were calculated, and responses were analyzed for an association between demographic variables. Results: The Barriers to Care Questionnaire, in which lower scores indicate more barriers, revealed that both adults (mean = 69.9) and children (mean = 75.5) with SCD experienced reduced access to care. The Adult Sickle Cell Quality of Life Measurement Information System indicated increased depression and loneliness in adults, with the lowest scores in the Emotional subscale. However, the Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory answered by caregivers of children with SCD showed the lowest scores in the Physical Functioning subscale. Further analysis using the Caregiver Burden Scale‐Zarit Burden Interview revealed that 53.8% of caregivers of children with SCD indicated "little to no burden," which may reflect a difference in cultural expectations of a caregiver between high‐income countries and Grenada. Finally, ~80% of respondents knew that SCD was a genetic condition; however, 61%–84% could not correctly indicate recurrence risks, demonstrating a need for additional education. Conclusion: These data provide new insights regarding the experience of living with SCD in Grenada and support the need for further investigations into specific barriers to healthcare delivery, which could also improve education and well‐being for those affected by SCD in Grenada and in the broader Caribbean community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]