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As Sweden takes its first steps towards a hydrogen-based economy, a strategic approach to infrastructure development for both storage and delivery becomes necessary. Although compressed hydrogen is currently the state-of-the-art, its low volumetric density and associated high capital costs pose challenges to widespread societal deployment of hydrogen. In order to avoid technological lock-in, alternatives storage technologies including chemical hydrides, e.g. methanol, ammonia, methane and LOHC, must also be explored. These alternatives offer higher hydrogen densities, safer handling, and compatibility with existing infrastructure. However, each hydride has unique chemical and physical properties, requires distinct feedstock and conversion processes, and interacts with the energy system in different ways, all of which influences their suitability for various applications. Therefore, a comprehensive evaluation of these alternative hydrogen storage technologies, as carried out in this article, is vital to allow for informed investment decisions and pave the way towards a successful and sustainable hydrogen economy. • Chemical hydrides have emerged as promising hydrogen storage alternatives. • Chemical hydrides facilitate cheaper global hydrogen trade. • Sweden's biogenic CO 2 emissions promote storage in methanol and methane. • Optimal storage choice depends on specific applications and their energy systems. • Chemical hydrides have high technological maturity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrogen direct reduction has been proposed as a means to decarbonize primary steelmaking. Preferably, the hydrogen necessary for this process is produced via water electrolysis. A downside to electrolysis is the large electricity demand. The electricity cost of water electrolysis may be reduced by using a hydrogen storage to exploit variations in electricity price, i.e., producing more hydrogen when the electricity price is low and vice versa. In this paper we compare two kinds of hydrogen storages in the context of a hydrogen direct reduction process via simulations based on historic Swedish electricity prices: the storage of gaseous hydrogen in an underground lined rock cavern and the storage of hydrogen chemically bound in methanol. We find the methanol-based storages to be economically advantageous to lined rock caverns in several scenarios. The main advantages of methanol-based storage are the low investment cost of storage capacity and the possibility to decouple storage capacity from rate capacity. Nevertheless, no storage option is found to be profitable for historic Swedish electricity prices. For the storages to be profitable, electricity prices must be volatile with relatively frequent high peaks, which has happened rarely in Sweden in recent years. However, such scenarios may become more common with the expected increase of intermittent renewable power in the Swedish electricity system. [Display omitted] • Storage of H 2 key to lower costs of hydrogen-based steelmaking. • Storage of compressed H 2 and H 2 bound in methanol compared. • H 2 storage in methanol integrates well in hydrogen direct reduction process. • Simulations using historic electricity prices favor methanol in several scenarios. • Low-cost storage capacity, flexibility of sizing main advantages of methanol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The large-scale storage of hydrogen plays a fundamental role in a potential future hydrogen economy. Although the storage of gaseous hydrogen in salt caverns already is used on a full industrial scale, the approach is not applicable in all regions due to varying geological conditions. Therefore, other storage methods are necessary. In this article, options for the large-scale storage of hydrogen are reviewed and compared based on fundamental thermodynamic and engineering aspects. The application of certain storage technologies, such as liquid hydrogen, methanol, ammonia, and dibenzyltoluene, is found to be advantageous in terms of storage density, cost of storage, and safety. The variable costs for these high-density storage technologies are largely associated with a high electricity demand for the storage process or with a high heat demand for the hydrogen release process. If hydrogen is produced via electrolysis and stored during times of low electricity prices in an industrial setting, these variable costs may be tolerable. Image 1 • There are several viable options for the large-scale storage of hydrogen. • Context affects the optimal choice of hydrogen storage technology. • Chemical hydrides, such as ammonia and methanol, store hydrogen at high density. • Operational expenditure of liquefaction similar to use of chemical hydrides. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sweden is a leading country in the development of upgraded biogas for use in the transport sector. The introduction of a new vehicle fuel is complex when the production, infrastructure, and vehicle fleet must be developed simultaneously. The aim of this article is to present and analyse the development of upgraded biogas in the Swedish transport sector in relation to policy instruments and the availability of a natural gas grid. Plausible implications for the future development of the biogas system are also analysed. The development of upgraded biogas in Sweden's transport sector is heavily influenced in several ways by domestic policy instruments. Investment support schemes and exemptions from energy and carbon dioxide taxes have been key instruments in initiating the construction of new biogas production facilities and infrastructure. The study of the biogas development in relation to the natural gas grid presented in this article indicates that it may not be necessary to construct a comprehensive network of pipelines for methane (natural gas) to develop the market – at least not initially. In Sweden and elsewhere the biogas volumes will still be quite small in the near future and it is possible to achieve biogas development without an available methane gas grid. Public procurement, investment schemes and reduced fringe benefit tax have likely been important policy instruments in the introduction of biogas vehicles, whereas the support for private biogas cars has been short-sighted in some ways, and not sufficient to achieve a competitive cost of ownership for biogas cars in relation to diesel cars. The future strategy for biogas should be based on a realistic potential for using biogas in the transport sector; this would determine whether further market expansion is necessary or if incentives should be focused on development of the production side to cover the current demand for vehicle gas. The development of biogas production likely depends on continued tax exemptions, which are currently available only until the end of 2015; it is uncertain whether they will remain in place. If biogas should be promoted further among private car owners, more visible incentives for private cars are needed together with incentives for expanding the fuelling infrastructure network. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From the perspective of construction companies, this paper investigates the existence and significance of barriers and driving forces for the implementation of energy-efficient houses in Sweden. Here, eleven construction companies that build low-energy buildings comparable in performance with passive houses have been interviewed. One conclusion is that there is not one specific barrier that keeps energy-efficient housing from taking off. Instead, the barriers include a whole range of issues that have to be considered. Internal pressure has been a strong contributor to the onset of passive house constructions within the companies and the results indicate that personal commitment is central and perhaps the strongest driver. A general reflection from the interviews is that there is a need to show both construction companies and potential customers that it is possible to build passive houses and that they exist. Unlike the national building regulations, which are not considered to be relevant when it comes to energy consumption, the future building regulations from the European Union are identified as a regulatory driver. Moreover, life-cycle thinking is reported to increase among actors, but that it would be beneficial if banks as well as real estate agents could develop a comprehensive view and become better at considering energy and LCC in their capital budgeting templates. Even if the interest for passive houses is considered low among the public, the market is identified as promising among the construction companies - recently actually large enough to become a driver in itself. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Steelmaking is responsible for 7% of the global net emissions of carbon dioxide and heavily reducing emissions from currently dominating steelmaking processes is difficult and costly. Recently, new steelmaking processes based on the reduction of iron ore with hydrogen (H 2) produced via water electrolysis have been suggested. If the electricity input to such processes is fossil-free, near-zero carbon dioxide emissions steelmaking is achievable. However, the high electricity demand of electrolysis is a significant implementation barrier. A H 2 storage may alleviate this via allowing a larger share of H 2 to be produced at low electricity prices. However, accurately forecasting electricity market dynamics is challenging. This increases the risk of investment in a H 2 storage. Here we evaluate a novel methanol-based H 2 storage concept for H 2 -based steelmaking that also allows for the co-production of methanol. During electricity price peaks, the methanol can be reformed to produce H 2 for the steelmaking process. During prolonged periods of low electricity prices, excess methanol can be produced and sold off, thus improving the prospects of storage profitability. We use historical electricity prices and a process model to evaluate methanol and fossil-free steel co-production schemes. Methanol co-production is found to have the potential to improve the economics of H 2 supply to a fossil-free steelmaking process by up to an average of 0.40 €/kg H 2 across considered scenarios, equivalent to a 25.0% reduction in H 2 production electricity costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the integration of water electrolysis technologies in fossil-free steelmaking via the direct reduction of iron ore followed by processing in an electric arc furnace (EAF). Hydrogen (H 2) production via low or high temperature electrolysis (LTE and HTE) is considered for the production of carbon-free direct reduced iron (DRI). The introduction of carbon into the DRI reduces the electricity demand of the EAF. Such carburization can be achieved by introducing carbon monoxide (CO) into the direct reduction process. Therefore, the production of mixtures of H 2 and CO using either a combination of LTE coupled with a reverse water-gas shift reactor (rWGS-LTE) or high-temperature co-electrolysis (HTCE) was also investigated. The results show that HTE has the potential to reduce the specific electricity consumption (SEC) of liquid steel (LS) production by 21% compared to the LTE case. Nevertheless, due to the high investment cost of HTE units, both routes reach similar LS production costs of approximately 400 €/tonne LS. However, if future investment cost targets for HTE units are reached, a production cost of 301 €/tonne LS is attainable under the conditions given in this study. For the production of DRI containing carbon, a higher SEC is calculated for the LTE-rWGS system compared to HTCE (4.80 vs. 3.07 MWh/tonne LS). Although the use of HTCE or LTE-rWGS leads to similar LS production costs, future cost reduction of HTCE could result in a 10% reduction in LS production cost (418 vs. 375 €/tonne LS). We show that the use of HTE, either for the production of pure H 2 or H 2 and CO mixtures, may be advantageous compared to the use of LTE in H 2 -based steelmaking, although results are sensitive to electrolyzer investment costs, efficiencies, and electricity prices. • Reduction of iron ore with hydrogen using water electrolysis technologies. • Reduction in specific electricity consumption with high temperature electrolysis. • Addition of carbon in reduced iron using syngas produced with co-electrolysis. • Estimated cost of producing carbon-free and carbon containing liquid steel. • Electricity price and electrolyzer CAPEX are major parameters affecting cost of liquid steel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Renewable waste-based fuels may decrease the resource use and environmental impact of the road transport sector; one of the options is biogas produced via anaerobic digestion of waste streams from pulp and paper mills. This paper describes process simulation and economic assessments for two options for integrating anaerobic digestion and production of liquid biogas in a typical Nordic Kraft pulp mill: (1) a high-rate anaerobic reactor in the wastewater treatment, and (2) an external anaerobic stirred tank reactor for the treatment of primary and secondary sludge as well as Kraft evaporator methanol condensate. The results revealed an annual production potential of 26–27 GWh biogas in an average Nordic Kraft pulp mill, which is equivalent to a daily production of 7600 L of diesel in terms of energy, and the production cost was estimated to €0.47–0.82 per litre diesel equivalent, comparable with the Swedish price of €0.68 per litre diesel. However, for the cases with liquid biogas (LBG), a discounted payback period of about 8 years may not be considered profitable by the industry. Other pre-requisites may, however, improve the profitability: a larger mill; production of compressed biogas instead of liquid biogas; or, for case 1, a comparison with the alternative cost for expanding the wastewater treatment capacity with more process equipment for activated sludge treatment. The results reveal that anaerobic digestion at pulp mills may both expand the production of renewable vehicle fuel but also enable increased efficiency and revenue at Kraft pulp mills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Renewable energy is well recognized not only as resource that helps to protect the environment for future generations but also as a driver for development. Waste-to-energy systems can provide renewable energy and also improve sustainability in waste management. This article contributes a case study of stepwise reconfiguration of the waste management system in a developing country to the literature of transitions. The conditions for a systemic transition that integrates large-scale biogas generation into the waste management system have been analyzed. The method included a multi-criteria evaluation of three development steps for biogas, an economic analysis, and an institutional and organizational analysis. The results revealed economic as well as institutional and organizational barriers. Clearly, public and private sectors need to engage in sustainability. There is also a lack of pressure – mainly because of fossil fuel subsidies – that prevents a transition and creates a lock-in effect. To break the lock-in effect the municipality's institutional capacity should be strengthened. It is possible to strengthen biogas economically by integrated waste management services and sales of biofertilizer. A stepwise reconfiguration would be initiated by adopting technologies that are already established in many developed countries but are novelties in a Bolivian context – as a response to sustainability challenges related to waste management. The article focuses on the main challenges and the potential for biogas technology in Bolivia and a pathway towards a new, more sustainable system is suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The focus on pathways to reduce the use of fossil fuels in the transport sector is intense in many countries worldwide. Considering that biofuels have a limited technical production potential and that battery electric vehicles suffer from technical limitations that put constraints on their general use in the transport sector, hydrogen-fuelled fuel cell vehicles may become a feasible alternative. Introduction of hydrogen in the transport sector will also transform the energy sector and create new interactions. The aim of this paper is to analyse the consequences and feasibility of such an integration in Sweden. Different pathways for hydrogen, electricity and methane to the transport sector are compared with regard to system energy efficiency. The well-to-wheel energy efficiencies for hydrogen and electricity are used for estimating the energy resources needed for hydrogen production and electric vehicles for a future Swedish transport sector based on renewable fuels. The analysis reveal that the well-to-wheel system efficiencies for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are comparable to those of methane gas vehicles, even when biomethane is the energy source. The results further indicate that an increased hydrogen demand may have a less than expected impact on the primary energy supply in Sweden. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sweden and Finland have national goals to reach net negative greenhouse gas emissions before mid-century. Achieving these ambitious goals could employ negative emission technologies, such as bioenergy with carbon capture and storage, but it is unclear how this technology could be realized in an energy transition. Sweden and Finland stand out for having a large share of substantial point source emissions of biogenic carbon dioxide, in the production of pulp, heat and power. In the European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register, Sweden and Finland reported 64% and 51% biogenic emissions, respectively, in facilities emitting over 100 kt of carbon dioxide in 2017, while the corresponding collective figure for all European states in the database is 6%. This qualitative study highlights company actors' perspectives on bioenergy with carbon capture and storage within a Nordic regional context and explores their perspective on emerging tensions in the energy transition. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 20 of the 24 companies with the largest point sources of biogenic emissions. The results are framed around four emerging tensions regarding bioenergy with carbon capture and storage from companies' perspectives in this study: (1) absence of reliable long-term policies; (2) limits to companies' climate change responsibility; (3) technical trade-offs of carbon capture; and (4) lack of customer demands for negative emissions. According to most of the companies, it is technically feasible to capture carbon dioxide, but it could be a challenge to determine who is responsible to create a financially viable business case, to enact supporting policies, and to build transport and storage infrastructure. Company representatives argue that they already contribute to a sustainable society, therefore bioenergy with carbon capture and storage is not their priority without government collaboration. However, they are willing to contribute more and could have an increasing role towards an energy transition in an international context. • BECCS discussions are on the horizon, but few companies are first movers. • Large-scale deployment of BECCS would require political and financial support. • Swedish and Finnish companies lack customer demand for negative emissions. • There are trade-offs between energy efficiency and carbon capture. • Companies consider BECCS as one of many climate change mitigation measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article addresses incentives and barriers for the development of biogas production and use in transport. It is based on statistics, interviews with biogas actors in a Swedish region, as well as a literature study. These actors perceive that the stagnating vehicle gas demand is the major barrier for biogas development. Policy support could stimulate the vehicle gas demand to strengthen incentives for investments along the entire biogas value chain. There are opportunities on the supply side to increase biogas production based on waste and residues, to improve digestate handling, and to expand the gas distribution infrastructure. However, the sector perceives a high risk in biogas investments partially due to the low predictability of Swedish policy instruments and this, together with the stagnated demand for vehicle gas, are identified as the main barriers for biogas development. Thus, policy makers should focus on these barriers if the intention is to develop the use of biogas in transport. • Opportunities to support biogas development with policy instrument. • Barriers are stagnated vehicle gas demand and low predictability of policy support. • Biogas production can increase based on waste and residues. • Digestate handling may improve. • Gas distribution infrastructure may expand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]