Search

Neanderthals hunted and butchered straight-tusked elephants, the largest terrestrial mammals of the Pleistocene, in a lake landscape on the North European plain, 125,000 years ago, as recently shown by a study of the Last Interglacial elephant assemblage from Neumark-Nord (Germany). With evidence for a remarkable focus on adult males and on their extended utilization, the data from this location are thus far without parallel in the archaeological record. Given their relevance for our knowledge of the Neanderthal niche, we investigated whether the Neumark-Nord subsistence practices were more than a local phenomenon, possibly determined by local characteristics. Analyzing elephant remains from two other Last Interglacial archaeological sites on the North European plain, Gröbern and Taubach, we identified in both assemblages similar butchering patterns as at Neumark-Nord, demonstrating that extended elephant exploitation was a widespread Neanderthal practice during the (early part of the) Last Interglacial. The substantial efforts needed to process these animals, weighing up to 13 metric tons, and the large amounts of food generated suggest that Neanderthals either had ways of storing vast amounts of meat and fat and/or temporarily aggregated in larger groups than commonly acknowledged. The data do not allow us to rule out one of the two explanations, and furthermore both factors, short-term larger group sizes as well as some form of food preservation, may have played a role. What the data do show is that exploitation of large straight-tusked elephants was a widespread and recurring phenomenon amongst Last Interglacial Neanderthals on the North European plain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Data regarding the subsistence base of early hominins are heavily biased in favor of the animal component of their diets, in particular the remains of large mammals, which are generally much better preserved at archaeological sites than the bones of smaller animals, let alone the remains of plant food. Exploitation of smaller game is very rarely documented before the latest phases of the Pleistocene, which is often taken to imply narrow diets of archaic Homo and interpreted as a striking economic difference between Late Pleistocene and earlier hominins. We present new data that contradict this view of Middle Pleistocene Lower Palaeolithic hominins: cut mark evidence demonstrating systematic exploitation of beavers, identified in the large faunal assemblage from the c. 400,000 years old hominin site Bilzingsleben, in central Germany. In combination with a prime-age dominated mortality profile, this cut mark record shows that the rich beaver assemblage resulted from repetitive human hunting activities, with a focus on young adult individuals. The Bilzingsleben beaver exploitation evidence demonstrates a greater diversity of prey choice by Middle Pleistocene hominins than commonly acknowledged, and a much deeper history of broad-spectrum subsistence than commonly assumed, already visible in prey choices 400,000 years ago. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article highlights a study of the largest Palaeoloxodon antiquus assemblage known, excavated from 125,000-year-old lake deposits in Germany which shows that hunting of elephants weighing up to 13 metric tons was part of the cultural repertoire of Last Interglacial Neanderthals there, over 2000 years, many dozens of generations. It concludes that Neanderthals were less mobile and operated within social units substantially larger than commonly envisaged.

The site of Oelknitz (Thuringia, Germany) is among the largest and in terms of spatial organisation most complex Magdalenian open air sites known to date, rich in evident structures. The current paper reports evidence from the youngest, latest phase of occupation at Oelknitz Structure 3. It is demonstrated that this structure represents a dwelling construction characterised by different spatially distinct activity zones. Several hypotheses can be drawn from this evidence in order to understand basic principles on Magdalenians’ settlement behaviour and their social cohesion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Geochronological and environmental studies show that two adjacent lake basins containing Middle Palaeolithic industries, Neumark-Nord 1 and Neumark-Nord 2 (Germany) both date to the early Corylus phase of the Eemian Interglacial, of ca. 125,000 years ago. Here hominins exploited a wide range of herbivores in a 26 ha lake landscape during a period that is often considered to be extremely challenging for Neandertals in terms of environmental conditions. We present the progressing faunal analysis of Neumark-Nord 2/2 and a new pilot study into the exploitation patterns of the Neumark-Nord 1 faunal assemblage, which clearly demonstrate the potential and importance of Neumark-Nord for the study of hominin subsistence strategies in Interglacial Landscapes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Herbivores from the Neumark-Nord 2 archaeological site, Germany, were analysed for bone collagen stable carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotope ratios in order to investigate feeding ecology at this early Last Interglacial (Eemian) shallow-lake site. Of 42 faunal samples selected, 23 yielded collagen, demonstrating remarkable preservation for material of this age. The results indicate clear inter-specific differences in δ15N and δ13C values, notably between equids (Equus) and bovids (Bos/Bison), with mean difference Δ15N of +2‰ measured in the bovids compared to the equids. The potential reasons for these differences are explored, including physiology, herbivore feeding ecology, biogeography and resource partitioning within the local environment. The data are compared to previously published archaeological data, and modern experimental and ecological data, suggesting that these inter-specific differences are not consistent and therefore unlikely to be solely the product of physiology or habitual forage preference. Data from this study are compared to the local vegetation (as reconstructed from pollen profiles), and it is suggested that these trends are likely the result of niche partitioning at the shallow lake site, reflecting the local diversity in vegetational zones. The evidence for resource partitioning amongst Pleistocene herbivore communities at Neumark-Nord 2 and elsewhere is discussed. This study represents one of the largest data sets for collagen of this age, and the implications for our understanding of Late Pleistocene herbivore ecology, local herbivore community behaviour and hominin palaeodietary studies are explored. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The current paper reports on the faunal assemblage from Structure 1 at the German Magdalenian site of Oelknitz. The composition of the fauna is characterised by a dominance of horse. The horses were exploited for meat and marrow. A strict spatial separation of carcass parts is obvious, also observed at other Magdalenian sites, where the evidence was interpreted in terms of social interaction and food sharing. This is discussed against the contextual background of the site of Oelknitz. It is suggested that the way in which Magdalenians interacted socially is independent of site function. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The discipline of archaeozoology holds the potential to considerably contribute to knowledge about the social behaviour of Neandertals. However, the translation of proposed subsistence strategies into predictions about Neandertal social organisation still remains a challenge. The paper discusses the current state of archaeozoological research with respect to Neandertal subsistence. It is concluded that the methodological research focus in archaeozoology has shifted from its original holistic perspective to intensified/specialised studies of particular taphonomic components. The authors argue for a return to a more holistic perspective to develop the full potential of archaeolozoology in order to obtain a comprehensive overall perspective of Neandertal social behaviour. Here, two avenues are suggested to reflate the processual character of taphonomy: 1. by conducting actualistic studies, which should serve to test the homogeneity of a faunal assemblage; and 2. by concentrating on sites from ecologically well-defined environments with high temporal resolution, such as interglacial sites. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The current paper reports an experimental case study to test the heterogeneity of faunal assemblages from the Early-Middle Pleistocene Layers V-5 and V-6 of the Gesher Benot Ya’aqov Acheulian site (Israel). Tumbling and trampling experiments were initiated to gain qualitative insight into processes of bone modification and to assess the timing of the biostratonomic chronology, as it was assumed that both mechanisms were responsible for the formation of striations documented on the bone surfaces from the site. The tumbling experiments mimicked sediment movement in a calm lacustrine shoreline environment whereas the trampling experiments investigate the role of animal/hominin activities in dry, muddy and wet environments. Models for the internal operational sequence of an abrasional process due to uni- and multidirectional water movement and of a trampling scenario are presented. These models are used for the interpretation of the fauna from Gesher Benot Ya’aqov. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Three assemblages of fallow deer (Dama sp.) bones excavated from the early middle Pleistocene (oxygen isotope stage 18) layers of the Acheulian site of Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov, Israel, furnish evidence of systematic and repeated exploitation of complete carcasses by hominins. The excellent state of preservation of the bones and the presence of only minimal signs of carnivore involvement permit an investigation of the role of hominins as the primary agents responsible for the damage to these bones. Hominin expertise in dealing with fallow deer carcasses is manifested by cut marks, percussion marks, and hack marks on the bones. The archaeozoological analysis of the anatomical position and frequency of these marks suggests that carcass processing followed systematic practices that reflect an in-depth knowledge of fallow deer anatomy and a consistent behavioral strategy. These assemblages represent one of the earliest examples of methodological butchering practices in Eurasia. The evidence of carcass processing observed at Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov resembles that seen in late Pleistocene sites in Israel, which were inhabited by modern humans. We interpret the Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov data as indicating that the Acheulian hunters at the site (1) were proficient communicators and learners and (2) possessed anatomical knowledge, considerable manual skill, impressive technological abilities, and foresight. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The Middle Pleistocene site of Schöningen 13II-4 “Spear Horizon” is well known not only for the presence of a series of wooden spears, but also for the excellent preservation and richness of its faunal assemblage, the high resolution of its stratigraphical sequence and the large expanse of the excavated surface. These characteristics offer excellent conditions for developing refitting analyses. In this paper, we present the spatial analysis of the first refitting analysis of the faunal assemblage. Results from the refitting spatial analysis suggest that post-depositional processes had little influence on the displacement of the faunal assemblage, supporting previous studies that confirm the integrity of the site. In contrast, the movement of bones, bone fragments and bone tools throughout the site is due to biotic agents, mostly the result of hominin activity along with a limited carnivore activity. Refitting analysis allows distinguishing two major depositional zones—the main shoreline and the lake basin—not immediately connected to each other, each one showing distinct spatial patternings, and provides a detailed reconstruction of butchering activities at the “Spear Horizon”, including prey distribution, butchery processes and tool use. These results offer new insight on hominins use of space, group size and work organization during the Middle Pleistocene. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The African Middle Pleistocene (781–126 ka) is a key period for human evolution, witnessing both the origin of the modern human lineage and the lithic turnover from Earlier Stone Age (ESA) Acheulean bifacial tools to Middle Stone Age (MSA) prepared core and point technologies. This ESA/MSA transition is interpreted as representing changing landscape use with greater foraging distances and more active hunting strategies. So far, these behavioral inferences are mainly based on the extensive stone tool record, with only a minor role for site-based and regional faunal studies. To provide additional insights into these behavioral changes, this paper details a pan-African metastudy of 63 Middle Pleistocene faunal assemblages from 40 sites. A hierarchical classification system identified 26 well-contextualized assemblages with quantitative paleontological and/or zooarcheological data available for detailed comparative analyses and generalized linear mixed modeling. Modeling of ungulate body size classes structured around three dimensions (context, antiquity and technology) illustrates no one-to-one correlation between changes in lithic technology (Acheulean vs. MSA) and changes in prey representation. All assessed faunal assemblages are dominated by medium-sized bovids, and variations between smaller and larger body size classes are linked to site context (cave vs. open-air), with an increase in cave sites during the Middle Pleistocene. Current data do not signal a broadening of the hominin dietary niche during the Middle Pleistocene; no meaningful variation was visible in the exploitation of smaller-sized bovids or dangerous game, with coastal resources exploited when available. Proportions of anthropogenic bone surface modifications, and hence carcass processing intensity, do increase over time although more zooarcheological data is crucial before making behavioral inferences. Overall, this paper illustrates the potential of broad scale comparative faunal analyses to provide additional insights into processes of human behavioral evolution and the mechanisms underlying patterns of technological, chronological and contextual change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To spatially characterize the palaeolakeshore environment at the archaeological kill site Schöningen 13 II‐4 of the Middle Pleistocene Reinsdorf sequence, in‐depth palynological, geochemical, aquatic microfossil and archaeological analyses were undertaken on sediment sections with an average thickness of about 15 cm, concordantly overlain by faunal remains, dominated by horse, from the unique 'Spear Horizon' layers of the 1995 excavation campaign. The data reveal a distinctive lake level drop, documented by the change from a carbonate‐rich lake marl to a carbonate‐free organic mud with increased carbon content and decreasing C/N, Si/Al, Si/K and Fe/Al ratios, indicating a higher pedogenic supply of organic matter and drier conditions at the site. Compared with older, similar transitional phases of lake level changes occurring within the Reinsdorf sequence, it is important that these youngest sediments are undisturbed, indicating continuous development. Ostracod and diatom analyses indicate a lowering water level with higher salinities and rich aquatic vegetation. Mesorheophilic ostracod species along with tychoplanktic diatom taxa point to flowing waters and turbulence at the lakeshore, presumably related to spring‐fed streams originating from nearby highlands. Palynological results reveal a very diverse zonal vegetation pattern around the palaeolakeshore considering an area of investigation of approximately 50 × 75 m and a tessellated type of regional vegetation during the formation of the archaeological horizons. On topographically lower elevated areas, birch groves and taxa favouring wet, marshy conditions such as Cyperaceae, indicative of terrestrialization, were predominating, while other stands of this transitional phase reveal a very dry, grass‐dominated steppe woodland favouring a rich wildlife with a striking number of megaherbivores. Our results suggest that the lithological differences of the 'Spear Horizon' layers containing the archaeological finds were due to their respective topographical situation and that the layers were deposited almost simultaneously during the beginning of the lake level drop. Human activities seem to have concentrated in sparsely vegetated areas along the palaeolakeshore, rather than in areas of adjacent denser birch swamp forest stands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the emergence of the Acheulean is well documented in East Africa at ~1.7 Ma, subsequent developments are less well understood and to some extent controversial. Here, we provide robust evidence regarding the time period between 1.6 Ma and 1.2 Ma, based on an interdisciplinary approach to the stratigraphic sequences exposed in the Gombore gully of Melka Kunture, in the upper Awash Valley of Ethiopia. Throughout the Pleistocene, the environment differed significantly from elsewhere in Africa because of the elevation at 2000 m asl, the cooler and rainy climate, the Afromontane vegetation, the development of endemic animal species, and the recurrent impact of volcanic activity. At Gombore IB, dated ~1.6 Ma, remains of Homo erectus/ergaster have been discovered, associated with a rich early Acheulean assemblage. The techno-typological analysis of the lithic record from Gombore Iγ (~1.4 Ma) and Gombore Iδ (~1.3 Ma), where substantial areas have been excavated, and the contrasting evidence from Gombore OAM Test Pit C (~1.2 Ma), suggest that the scarcity or lack of large flakes and large cutting tools at the two earlier sites is possibly not just the outcome of sampling bias, but rather of the adaptation of H. erectus / ergaster to the local resources, in a relatively isolated environment. The sites of Gombore gully provide new evidence on the complex pattern of human evolution and adaptation in East Africa during the Lower Pleistocene. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Identifying the use of stone-tipped projectile weapons in prehistory is important for understanding hominin strategic behavior and cognitive capacities. Such identifications are based on ‘diagnostic impact fractures’ (DIFs), assumed to form as a result of collisions between the tips and organic materials in the prey body. However, demonstrating weapon use requires documenting an impact speed and/or kinetic energy beyond those likely to occur accidentally or as a by-product of other tasks. We present a new experiment aimed at investigating the influence of speed on impact fracture formation in controlled conditions. Using an air-gun, we fired 234 nearly identical spears tipped with copies of a Levallois point cast in soda-lime glass into a composite target made of polyurethane bone-like plates, ballistic gelatin, and leather. The impact speed ranged from ≈7 to ≈30 m/s and the impact angle (IA) varied in increments of 15°, from 90° to –45°. We show that realistic DIFs can be produced under these controlled conditions. The frequency of longitudinal tip macrofractures is directly proportional to the impact speed but inversely proportional to the IA. The relationship between the tip fracture type and the type of damage left on the target explains the contact conditions for the formation of different DIFs. No relationship between either initiation or termination type and speed could be established. Therefore, we conclude that ‘step-terminating bending fractures’ should not be considered diagnostic of weapon use without further supporting evidence. Further, although fracture length increases with speed when IA is held constant, a great deal of overlap exists between trials with different IAs. Given the expected high variance in IA in real hunting situations, large longitudinal macrofractures on the tips of archaeologically recovered lithics should not automatically be interpreted as resulting from the use of high-speed projectiles. We discuss the study's implications for the differentiation of prehistoric weapon-delivery systems, especially regarding recognizing stonetipped weapon use by Neandertals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Schöningen 13II-4 site is a marvel of Paleolithic archaeology. With the extraordinary preservation of complete wooden spears and butchered large mammal bones dating from the Middle Pleistocene, Schöningen maintains a prominent position in the halls of human origins worldwide. Here, we present the first analysis of the complete large mammal faunal assemblage from Schöningen 13II-4, drawing on multiple lines of zooarchaeological and taphonomic evidence to expose the full spectrum of hominin activities at the site—before, during, and after the hunt. Horse (Equus mosbachensis) remains dominate the assemblage and suggest a recurrent ambush hunting strategy along the margins of the Schöningen paleo-lake. In this regard, Schöningen 13II-4 provides the first undisputed evidence for hunting of a single prey species that can be studied from an in situ, open-air context. The Schöningen hominins likely relied on cooperative hunting strategy to target horse family groups, to the near exclusion of bachelor herds. Horse kills occurred during all seasons, implying a year-round presence of hominins on the Schöningen landscape. All portions of prey skeletons are represented in the assemblage, many complete and in semiarticulation, with little transport of skeletal parts away from the site. Butchery marks are abundant, and adult carcasses were processed more thoroughly than were juveniles. Numerous complete, unmodified bones indicated that lean meat and marrow were not always so highly prized, especially in events involving multiple kills when fat and animal hides may have received greater attention. The behaviors displayed at Schöningen continue to challenge our perceptions and models of past hominin lifeways, further cementing Schöningen's standing as the archetype for understanding hunting adaptations during the European Middle Pleistocene. • The Schöningen "Spear Horizon" likely accumulated over a short period of time. • Middle Pleistocene hominins potentially occupied the Schöningen lakeshore year-round. • Schöningen hunters were highly selective in prey choice and prey target groups. • Carcass exploitation at Schöningen focused on situational needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers information about the antiquity, nature, and scale of Pleistocene hunter-gatherer impact on their ecosystems, despite the importance for studies of conservation and human evolution. It mentions the factors that shaped vegetation structure and succession in this lake landscape, we identify a distinct ecological footprint of hominin activities, including fire use.

Childhood is an ontogenetic stage unique to the modern human life history pattern. It enables the still dependent infants to achieve an extended rapid brain growth, slow somatic maturation, while benefitting from provisioning, transitional feeding, and protection from other group members. This tipping point in the evolution of human ontogeny likely emerged from early Homo. The GAR IVE hemi-mandible (1.8 Ma, Melka Kunture, Ethiopia) represents one of the rarely preserved early Homo infants (~ 3 years at death), recovered in a richly documented Oldowan archaeological context. Yet, based on the sole external inspection of its teeth, GAR IVE was diagnosed with a rare genetic disease–amelogenesis imperfecta (AI)–altering enamel. Since it may have impacted the child's survival, this diagnosis deserves deeper examination. Here, we reassess and refute this diagnosis and all associated interpretations, using an unprecedented multidisciplinary approach combining an in-depth analysis of GAR IVE (synchrotron imaging) and associated fauna. Some of the traits previously considered as diagnostic of AI can be better explained by normal growth or taphonomy, which calls for caution when diagnosing pathologies on fossils. We compare GAR IVE's dental development to other fossil hominins, and discuss the implications for the emergence of childhood in early Homo. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mollusc biogenic carbonates are valuable records of past environmental conditions. In particular, carbonate oxygen (δ18O) and carbon (δ13C) stable isotopes can be used to reconstruct different physical and chemical parameters, according to the different genera used (marine, freshwater or terrestrial). The Last Interglacial (early Eemian) palaeolake of Neumark‐Nord 2 (NN2), Germany provides an excellent example of a Neanderthal archaeological site with abundant freshwater carbonate remains. As in other European contexts, one of the most abundant species is Bithynia tentaculata. In order to provide a robust regional baseline for the interpretation of the archaeological data, this study includes a calibration phase on modern B. tentaculata opercula. The results indicate that these calcitic structures are likely to be subjected to a growth slowdown/cessation during summer, which influences their geochemistry, reflecting mainly the water properties of the rest of the year. This modern calibration, together with the existing palaeoenvironmental reconstructions developed for NN2 (e.g. pollen data), represents a valuable opportunity to establish B. tentaculata opercula as reliable environmental proxies applicable to several other freshwater contexts. The isotope data of the NN2 opercula, in agreement with the pollen record, indicate that the major archaeological horizon was formed during a rather wet period and potentially in a semi‐forested environment. However, human occupation occurred also during drier phases at the site and within a wide temperature range, indicating the absence of restricted environmental preferences by the local Neanderthal groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Percussion marks have been studied in the field of archaeology for more than a century. Researchers have identified, characterized and analysed them in order to distinguish them from traces of environment modification to bone and reconstruct hominin subsistence strategies. The multiplicity of studies based on percussion marks in different languages has led to a proliferation of different terminologies used for the same marks, especially in English. In addition, as a result of numerous experimental studies or ethnological observations, it is possible to accurately identify the different steps of the butchery process and each of the related marks. We know from experimental studies that the morphology of percussion traces inflicted by the same tools can differ as their morphology depends on many factors (i.e. location and intensity of blows, intrinsic bone variables). In addition to this, carnivore and hominin traces can be superimposed, which sometimes renders their interpretation difficult. Renewed interest in these percussion marks owing to the emergence of new technical means highlighted the need to review their classification and clarify the nomenclature. With this in mind, we reviewed the abundant scientific literature to propose a refined and descriptive nomenclature. The aim is to provide a coherent terminology for the description and analysis of impact fractures in different European languages. We also propose classifying percussion marks into three categories: (1) percussion marks sensu stricto, (2) traces consecutive to bone breakage and (3) striation marks related to marrow extraction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Schöningen 13II-4 ‘Spear Horizon’ site is famous for the excellent preservation of 300,000-year-old Palaeolithic hunting weapons, including nine wooden spears and a lance, deposited on the shores of a former interglacial lake in association with a large assemblage of well-preserved and butchered animal bones, mainly from horse. Some bones show distinct areas of dark staining, thought to be derived from contact with decaying plant remains along the shores of the lake. It was decided to test this theory and try to determine experimentally where bone staining was most likely to occur on the littoral zone. Modern horse and cow bones were fastened along parallel transects at two locations and the installations were left for several months. Black stains appeared on some bones in the shallows, but not on bones deposited on permanently dry land or in deeper water. Within the 10 m wide band of bones in the main concentration at the Schöningen site, there is a high incidence of bone staining, indicating accumulation of finds along a shallow lake margin. By using GIS, additional clusters of stained bones in the eastern part of the site were revealed and may indicate shorelines when water levels in the lake were lower. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Few sites with evidence for fire use are known from the Last Interglacial in Europe. Hearth features are rarely preserved, probably as a result of post-depositional processes. The small postglacial basins (<300 m in diameter) that dominate the sedimentary context of the Eemian record in Europe are high-resolution environmental archives often containing charcoal particles. This case study presents the macroscopic charcoal record of the Neumark-Nord 2 basin, Germany, and the correlation of this record with the distinct find levels of the basin margin that also contain thermally altered archaeological material. Increased charcoal quantities are shown to correspond to phases of hominin presence—a pattern that fits best with recurrent anthropogenic fires within the watershed. This research shows the potential of small basin localities in the reconstruction of local fire histories, where clear archaeological features like hearths are missing. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Abstract: An interdisciplinary study of a small sedimentary basin at Neumark Nord 2 (NN2), Germany, has yielded a high-resolution record of the palaeomagnetic Blake Event, which we are able to place at the early part of the last interglacial pollen sequence documented from the same section. We use this data to calculate the duration of this stratigraphically important event at 3400±350yr. More importantly, the Neumark Nord 2 data enables precise terrestrial–marine correlation for the Eemian stage in central Europe. This shows a remarkably large time lag of ca. 5000yr between the MIS 5e ‘peak’ in the marine record and the start of the last interglacial in this region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Middle Pleistocene Schöningen 13II-4 'Spear Horizon' (Germany) is a key site for the study of human evolution, most notably for the discovery of Paleolithic wooden weaponry and evidence for developed hunting strategies. On the other hand, the 'Spear Horizon' offers an excellent opportunity to approach hominin spatial behavior, thanks to the richness of the archeological assemblage, its exceptional preservation, and the vast expanse of the excavated surface. Analyzing how space was used is essential for understanding hominin behavior at this unique open-air site and, from a wider perspective, for approaching how humans adapted to interglacial environments. In this article, we present an exhaustive spatial study of the complete Schöningen 13II-4 'Spear Horizon' faunal assemblage and its archeological context, combining zooarcheology and spatial analysis through the extensive application of geographic information systems. Our results indicate the existence of different activity areas related to changes in the position of the shoreline due to fluctuations of water table levels of the Schöningen paleolake. These activity areas were likely used on a seasonal basis, whereas the spatial patterning observed in the distribution of faunal remains suggests a diversity of behavioral strategies in terms of intensity and/or duration of occupations. This study refines previous interpretations of the site and reconstructs human behavioral adaptations and the occupational changing lakeland environment during the Middle Pleistocene in Europe. • We conducted a detailed spatial analysis of the Schöningen 13II-4 faunal assemblage. • We documented different activity areas related to changes in water table levels. • We propose a seasonal pattern for human occupations at Schöningen 13II-4. • Schöningen 13II-4 can be used as a model for open-air sites during Middle Pleistocene. • We extensively applied GIS to Palaeolithic intrasite spatial archeology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Here we present phosphate oxygen isotope (δ 18O PO4) data from horse (Equus sp.) tooth enamel (bioapatite) from early Eemian and early Weichselian find levels at the archaeological site of Neumark-Nord 2, Germany. Based on the relationship between δ 18O PO4 of bioapatite, body water, local precipitation and air temperature, these data are used to reconstruct palaeoclimatic conditions contemporary to the different phases of Neanderthal activity at the site. Bulk enamel samples representing one year of growth were taken from horse teeth from early Eemian (NN2/2b [∼121 ± 5 ka], and NN2/1c) and early Weichselian (NN2/0; ∼93 ± 7 ka) find levels, and δ 18O PO4 values were then utilised to calculate δ 18O of local environmental water and mean annual air temperatures (MATs) during these phases of MIS5. Results indicate that during the early Eemian MAT was ∼9 °C, with some evidence of variability through time. Although ∼3 °C lower, the calculated early Weichselian MAT exceeds that indicated by other local and regional climate proxy datasets, suggesting that Neanderthal activity may have coincided with more ameliorate phases of the early Weichselian in this area. • Equus sp. enamel was sampled from Neumark-Nord 2 (find levels NN2/2b, 2/1c, 2/0). • δ 18O PO4 data were generated in order to estimate mean annual air temperature (MAT). • Early Eemian (∼121 ± 5 ka) MAT estimates are ∼9 °C, correlating with other proxies. • Early Weichselian (∼93 ± 7 ka) MAT was ∼6 °C, elevated compared to other proxies. • Implications for archaeology and Neanderthal-environmental interactions are explored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Correlating cultural, technological and ecological aspects of both Upper Pleistocene modern humans (UPMHs) and Neandertals provides a useful approach for achieving robust predictions about what makes us human. Here we present ecological information for a period of special relevance in human evolution, the time of replacement of Neandertals by modern humans during the Late Pleistocene in Europe. Using the stable isotopic approach, we shed light on aspects of diet and mobility of the late Neandertals and UPMHs from the cave sites of the Troisième caverne of Goyet and Spy in Belgium. We demonstrate that their diet was essentially similar, relying on the same terrestrial herbivores, whereas mobility strategies indicate considerable differences between Neandertal groups, as well as in comparison to UPMHs. Our results indicate that UPMHs exploited their environment to a greater extent than Neandertals and support the hypothesis that UPMHs had a substantial impact not only on the population dynamics of large mammals but also on the whole structure of the ecosystem since their initial arrival in Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]