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The internal representation of numbers on the mental number line (MNL) was demonstrated by performing the computerized version of the number-to-position (CNP) task on a touchscreen while restricting response time. We found that the estimation pattern is best fit by a sigmoid function, further denoted as the "sigmoidal model". Two developmental leaps occurring during elementary school were recognized: (1) the division of the number line into two segments and (2) consistent use of different anchor points on the number line—the left endpoint in first grade, the right endpoint in second grade, and finally the midpoint in third grade. Additionally, when examining the differences between the breakpoints, we found that first graders demonstrated a breakpoint close to 6, which linearly decreased over the years until stabilizing close to 5. The relation between the ability to place individual numbers on a number line and performance of mental arithmetic showed that the consistent use of anchor points correlated significantly with faster responses in mental arithmetic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Viviparity (live‐bearing) has independently evolved from oviparity (egg‐laying) in more than 100 lineages of squamates (lizards and snakes).We might expect consequent shifts in selective forces to affect per‐brood reproductive investment (RI = total mass of offspring relative to maternal mass) and in the way in which that output is partitioned (number vs. size of offspring per brood). Based on the assumption that newly born offspring are heavier than eggs, we predicted that live‐bearing must entail either increased RI or a reduction in offspring size and/or fecundity.However, our phylogenetically controlled analysis of data on 1,259 squamate species revealed no significant differences in mean offspring size, clutch size or RI between oviparous and viviparous squamates.We attribute this paradoxical result to (1) strong selection on offspring sizes, unaffected by parity mode, (2) the lack of a larval stage in amniotes, favouring large eggs even in the ancestral oviparous mode and (3) the ability of viviparous females to decrease the mass of uterine embryos by reducing extra‐embryonic water stores.Our analysis shows that squamate eggs (when laid) weigh about the same as the hatchlings that emerge from them (despite a many‐fold increase in embryo mass during incubation). Most of the egg mass is due to components (such as water stores and the eggshell) not required for oviductal incubation. That repackaging enables live‐born offspring to be accommodated within the mother's body without increasing total litter mass.The consequent stasis in reproductive burden during the evolutionary transition from oviparity to viviparity may have facilitated frequent shifts in parity modes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In ultra-Orthodox Israeli societies, the male leadership controls sources of knowledge and education. The women are directed towards fields of knowledge regarding education and social welfare, so that they will remain in a home environment. Even when working outside the home. In contrast, this article will demonstrate that there is an ultra-Orthodox society in Israel, in which the male political and spiritual leadership encourages women to acquire an academic and professional education so they will be able to fulfill themselves and make a respectable living. The test case is the leadership of the ultra-Orthodox Shas Party and its attitude to women's education and their employment outside the community. The article will also demonstrate that despite the modern values of education and employment, the men's hierarchical status is retained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The well-known spatial–numerical association of response code (SNARC) effect supports the idea that the mental number line (MNL) is organized from left to right in participants writing from left to right. In Arabic speakers writing from right to left, the direction of the SNARC effect is reversed. Until recently, no consistent numerical–spatial associations were reported in Hebrew speakers, who write letters from right to left and write numbers from left to right. However, a left-to-right SNARC effect was recently demonstrated in adult Hebrew readers by reducing the markedness association of response code (MARC) effect, which masks the SNARC effect. Adult Hebrew speakers (especially university students) are skilled English readers and writers, supporting the claim that the direction of reading is not the sole factor contributing to direction of the emergence of the left-to-right organization of the MNL. Thus, to understand the effect of reading habits on the SNARC effect, here we demonstrate the SNARC in young Hebrew-speaking children who read Hebrew letters from right to left, read numbers from left to right, and had little experience in writing English letters from left to right. Our findings, therefore, are innovative in providing supporting evidence for the claim that the direction of reading is not the sole factor contributing to direction of the emergence of the left-to-right organization of the MNL. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Variation in body size across animal species underlies most ecological and evolutionary processes shaping local‐ and large‐scale patterns of biodiversity. For well over a century, climatic factors have been regarded as primary sources of natural selection on animal body size, and hypotheses such as Bergmann's rule (the increase of body size with decreasing temperature) have dominated discussions. However, evidence for consistent climatic effects, especially among ectotherms, remains equivocal. Here, we test a range of key hypotheses on climate‐driven size evolution in squamate reptiles across several spatial and phylogenetic scales. Location: Global. Time period: Extant. Major taxa studied: Squamates (lizards and snakes). Methods: We quantified the role of temperature, precipitation, seasonality and net primary productivity as drivers of body mass across ca. 95% of extant squamate species (9,733 spp.). We ran spatial autoregressive models of phylogenetically corrected median mass per equal‐area grid cell. We ran models globally, across separate continents and for major squamate clades independently. We also performed species‐level analyses using phylogenetic generalized least square models and linear regressions of independent contrasts of sister species. Results: Our analyses failed to identify consistent spatial patterns in body size as a function of our climatic predictors. Nearly all continent‐ and family‐level models differed from one another, and species‐level models had low explanatory power. Main conclusions: The global distribution of body mass among living squamates varies independently from the variation in multiple components of climate. Our study, the largest in spatial and taxonomic scale conducted to date, reveals that there is little support for a universal, consistent mechanism of climate‐driven size evolution within squamates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the reasons why countries change their educational policies, using Israel as a case study. Employing quantitative and qualitative methods, I show that political constraints can cause governments to modify their educational policies without professional pedagogical discourse. Using the example of the ultra-Orthodox ethnic political party Shas, I demonstrate how--thanks to the political power that the party had gained, as well as the weakening of nationalist values--it succeeded in establishing a network of party schools with state funding despite the fact that some of these schools teach neither the state's values nor the core curriculum determined by the Ministry of Education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim To map and assess the richness patterns of reptiles (and included groups: amphisbaenians, crocodiles, lizards, snakes and turtles) in Africa, quantify the overlap in species richness of reptiles (and included groups) with the other terrestrial vertebrate classes, investigate the environmental correlates underlying these patterns, and evaluate the role of range size on richness patterns. Location Africa. Methods We assembled a data set of distributions of all African reptile species. We tested the spatial congruence of reptile richness with that of amphibians, birds and mammals. We further tested the relative importance of temperature, precipitation, elevation range and net primary productivity for species richness over two spatial scales (ecoregions and 1° grids). We arranged reptile and vertebrate groups into range-size quartiles in order to evaluate the role of range size in producing richness patterns. Results Reptile, amphibian, bird and mammal richness are largely congruent ( r = 0.79-0.86) and respond similarly to environmental variables (mainly productivity and precipitation). Ecoregion size accounts for more variation in the richness of reptiles than in that of other groups. Lizard distributions are distinct with several areas of high species richness where other vertebrate groups (including snakes) are species-poor, especially in arid ecoregions. Habitat heterogeneity is the best predictor of narrow-ranging species, but remains relatively important in explaining lizard richness even for species with large range sizes. Main conclusions Reptile richness varies with similar environmental variables as the other vertebrates in Africa, reflecting the disproportionate influence of snakes on reptile richness, a result of their large ranges. Richness gradients of narrow-ranged vertebrates differ from those of widespread taxa, which may demonstrate different centres of endemism for reptile subclades in Africa. Lizard richness varies mostly with habitat heterogeneity independent of range size, which suggests that the difference in response of lizards is due to their ecological characteristics. These results, over two spatial scales and multiple range-size quartiles, allow us to reliably interpret the influence of environmental variables on patterns of reptile richness and congruency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Size is one of the most important and obvious traits of an organism. Both small and large sizes have adaptive advantages and disadvantages. Body size-frequency distributions of most large clades are unimodal and right skewed. Species larger than the mean or range midpoint of body sizes are relatively scarce. Theoretical models suggest evolutionary rates are higher in small organisms with short generation times. Therefore diversification rates are usually thought to be maximal at relatively small body sizes. Empirical studies of the rates of molecular evolution and clade diversification, however, have usually indicated that both are unrelated to body size. Furthermore, it has been claimed that because snakes are longer than lizards, the size-frequency distribution of all squamate species is bimodal overall. We examined the shape of the size-frequency distribution of nearly all Squamata and Rhynchocephalia species, and investigated how size affected diversification rates. Location Global. Methods We collected data on maximum body length for 9805 lepidosaur (squamates and the tuatara) species (99.7% of all species) and converted them to mass using clade-specific allometric equations. Using methods that test for relationships between continuous traits and speciation and extinction rates on a large, dated phylogeny (4155 species), we investigated the relationship between diversification rates and body size. Results Living squamates span six orders of magnitude in body size, eight when giant extinct snakes and mosasaurs are included. The body size-frequency distributions of snakes and lizards separately, and of all lepidosaur species combined, are unimodal and right skewed. Nonetheless, we find neither linear nor hump-shaped relationships between size and diversification rates, except in snakes, where speciation and diversification are hump shaped. Main conclusions Despite a clear modality and skew in the body sizes of lepidosaurs, we find little evidence for faster diversification of modal-sized taxa, perhaps implying that larger-sized clades are relatively young. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Although most reptiles are oviparous, viviparity is a common mode of reproduction in squamates and has evolved multiple times in different lineages. We test two prevailing hypotheses regarding the biogeography of reptile reproductive modes to evaluate the selective forces driving the evolution of viviparity in snakes. The cold climate hypothesis posits that viviparity is selected for in cold climates, whereas the climatic predictability hypothesis predicts that viviparity is advantageous in seasonal climates. Location Global. Methods We collated detailed distribution maps and reproductive mode data for 2663 species of the world's terrestrial alethinophidian snakes. We studied the relationship between snake reproductive mode and environmental predictors. We applied both an ecological and an evolutionary approach to study snake reproductive mode by performing the analyses at the assemblage level and species level, respectively. We analysed our data at the global and continental scales to learn whether tendencies to viviparity are similar world-wide. Results We found strong support for the cold climate hypothesis and the assumption that viviparity is an adaptation to cold environments. There was little support for the climatic predictability hypothesis. Nonetheless, viviparous species are not restricted to cold environments. Main conclusions We conclude that viviparity is adaptive in cold climates, but not necessarily in unpredictable/seasonal climates. Current distributions may not reflect the climate at the time and place of speciation. We suspect many viviparous snakes inhabiting warm climates are members of lineages that originated in colder regions, and their occurrence in maladaptive environments is a result of phylogenetic conservatism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Longevity is an important life-history trait, directly linked to the core attributes of fitness (reproduction and survival), yet large-scale comparative studies quantifying its implications for the ecology and life history of ectotherms are scarce. We tested the allometry of longevity in squamates and the tuatara, and determined how longevity is related to key environmental characteristics and life-history traits. Predictions based on life-history theory are expected to hold true for ectotherms, similarly to mammals and birds. Location World-wide. Methods We assembled from the literature a dataset of the maximum longevities of more than a thousand squamate species, representing c. 10% of their known species diversity, their phylogenetic relationships and multiple life-history and ecological variables. Correcting for phylogeny, we modelled the link between squamate longevity and both key life-history traits, such as body mass and age at first reproduction, and important environmental factors, such as latitude and primary productivity within species distributional ranges. Results Large-bodied species live for longer than small ones, but body size explains far less of the variance in longevity than it does in mammals and birds. Accounting for body size, squamate brood frequency is negatively correlated with longevity, while age at first reproduction is positively correlated with longevity. This points to a continuum of slow-to-fast life-history strategies. Squamates in high latitudes and cold regions live for longer, probably because a shorter season of activity translates to slower development, older age at first reproduction and hence to increased longevity. Individuals live longer in captivity than in the wild. Herbivorous and omnivorous squamates live for longer than carnivorous ones. We postulate that low-quality nutrition reduces growth rates, promotes a relative decline in reproductive rates and thus prolongs life. Main conclusions Our results support key predictions from life-history theory and suggest that reproducing more slowly and at older ages, being herbivorous and, plausibly, lowering metabolism, result in increased longevity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maayan Hahinuch Hatorani is a Haredi (ultra-Orthodox) educational network for elementary aged children in Israel, founded by Shas, a Sephardi ultra-Orthodox political party. The network's beginnings were in the second half of the 1980s, during the Shas' first Knesset term. It then consisted of around 30 smallTalmudei Torah(Haredi elementary schools for boys), set up independently by Sephardi Haredi educational activists. This article describes their motives and activities in establishing schools for the Mizrahi community and explains the decisive contribution of two additional factors to the establishment of Maayan Hahinuch Hatorani: the senior Sephardi rabbis who awarded religious legitimacy, and the Shas Movement which provided political and financial support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Body size and body shape are tightly related to an animal's physiology, ecology and life history, and, as such, play a major role in understanding ecological and evolutionary phenomena. Because organisms have different shapes, only a uniform proxy of size, such as mass, may be suitable for comparisons between taxa. Unfortunately, snake masses are rarely reported in the literature. On the basis of 423 species of snakes in 10 families, we developed clade-specific equations for the estimation of snake masses from snout-vent lengths and total lengths. We found that snout-vent lengths predict masses better than total lengths. By examining the effects of phylogeny, as well as ecological and life history traits on the relationship between mass and length, we found that viviparous species are heavier than oviparous species, and diurnal species are heavier than nocturnal species. Furthermore, microhabitat preferences profoundly influence body shape: arboreal snakes are lighter than terrestrial snakes, whereas aquatic snakes are heavier than terrestrial snakes of a similar length. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, ●●, ●●-●●. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The peptide drug candidate NAP (davunetide) has demonstrated protective effects in various in vivo and in vitro models of neurodegeneration. NAP was shown to reduce tau hyperphosphorylation as well as to prevent caspase-3 activation and cytochrome-3 release from mitochondria, both characteristic of apoptotic cell death. Recent studies suggest that caspases may play a role in tau pathology. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of NAP on tau hyperphosphorylation and caspase activity in the same biological system. Our experimental setup used primary neuronal cultures subjected to oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD), with and without NAP or caspase inhibitor. Cell viability was assessed by measuring mitochondrial activity (MTS assay), and immunoblots were used for analyzing protein level. It was shown that apoptosis was responsible for all cell death occurring following ischemia, and NAP treatment showed a concentration-dependent protection from cell death. Ischemia caused an increase in the levels of active caspase-3 and hyperphosphorylated tau, both of which were prevented by either NAP or caspase-inhibitor treatment. Our data suggest that, in this model system, caspase activation may be an upstream event to tau hyperphosphorylation, although additional studies will be required to fully elucidate the cascade of events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Aims: Central nervous system complications including cognitive impairment are an early manifestation of diabetes mellitus, also evident in animal models. NAP (generic name, davunetide), a neuroprotective peptide was tested here for its ability to prevent diabetes-related brain pathologies in the streptozotocin injected diabetes rat model. Methods: Diabetes was induced by an intraperitoneal streptozotocin injection (55mg/kg). Intranasal NAP or vehicle was administered daily starting on the day following streptozotocin injection. Cognitive assessment was performed 12weeks after diabetes induction, using the Morris water maze paradigm. Brain structural integrity was assessed on the 15th week of diabetes by magnetic resonance T2 scan. Characterization of cellular populations, apoptosis and synaptic density was performed 16weeks after diabetes induction, using immunohistochemical markers and quantified in the prefrontal cortex, the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus of both hemispheres. Results: Impaired spatial memory of the diabetic rats was observed in the water maze by attenuated learning curve and worsened performance in the probe memory test. NAP treatment significantly improved both measurements. T2 magnetic resonance imaging revealed atrophy in the prefrontal cortex of the diabetes rat group, which was prevented by NAP treatment. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that NAP treatment protected against major loss of the synaptic marker synaptophysin and astrocytic apoptosis, resulting from streptozotocin treatment. Conclusions: Our results show for the first time protective effects for NAP (davuentide) in a diabetes rat model at the behavioral and structural levels against one of the most severe complications of diabetes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The protein CsaA has been proposed to function as a protein secretion chaperone in bacteria that lack the Sec-dependent protein-targeting chaperone SecB. CsaA is a homodimer with two putative substrate-binding pockets, one in each monomer. To test the hypothesis that these cavities are indeed substrate-binding sites able to interact with other polypeptide chains, we selected a peptide that bound to CsaA from a random peptide library displayed on phage. Presented here is the structure of CsaA from Agrobacterium tumefaciens (AtCsaA) solved in the presence and absence of the selected peptide. To promote co-crystallization, the sequence for this peptide was genetically fused to the amino-terminus of AtCsaA. The resulting 1.65 Å resolution crystal structure reveals that the tethered peptide from one AtCsaA molecule binds to the proposed substrate-binding pocket of a symmetry-related molecule possibly mimicking the interaction between a pre-protein substrate and CsaA. The structure shows that the peptide lies in an extended conformation with alanine, proline and glutamine side chains pointing into the binding pocket. The peptide interacts with the atoms of the AtCsaA-binding pocket via seven direct hydrogen bonds. The side chain of a conserved pocket residue, Arg76, has an “up” conformation when the CsaA-binding site is empty and a “down” conformation when the CsaA-binding site is occupied, suggesting that this residue may function to stabilize the peptide in the binding cavity. The presented aggregation assays, phage-display analysis and structural analysis are consistent with AtCsaA being a general chaperone. The properties of the proposed CsaA-binding pocket/peptide interactions are compared to those from other structurally characterized molecular chaperones. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV), an aquatic birnavirus that infects salmonid fish, encodes a large polyprotein (NH2-pVP2-VP4-VP3-COOH) that is processed through the proteolytic activity of its own protease, VP4, to release the proteins pVP2 and VP3. pVP2 is further processed to give rise to the capsid protein VP2 and three peptides that are incorporated into the virion. Reported here are two crystal structures of the IPNV VP4 protease solved from two different crystal symmetries. The electron density at the active site in the triclinic crystal form, refined to 2.2-Å resolution, reveals the acyl-enzyme complex formed with an internal VP4 cleavage site. The complex was generated using a truncated enzyme in which the general base lysine was substituted. Inside the complex, the nucleophilic Ser633Oγ forms an ester bond with the main-chain carbonyl of the C-terminal residue, Ala716, of a neighboring VP4. The structure of this substrate-VP4 complex allows us to identify the S1, S3, S5, and S6 substrate binding pockets as well as other substrate-VP4 interactions and therefore provides structural insights into the substrate specificity of this enzyme. The structure from the hexagonal crystal form, refined to 2.3-Å resolution, reveals the free-binding site of the protease. Three-dimensional alignment with the VP4 of blotched snakehead virus, another birnavirus, shows that the overall structure of VP4 is conserved despite a low level of sequence identity (∼19%). The structure determinations of IPNV VP4, the first of an acyl-enzyme complex for a Ser/Lys dyad protease, provide insights into the catalytic mechanism and substrate recognition of this type of protease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In viruses belonging to the Birnaviridae family, virus protein 4 (VP4) is the viral protease responsible for the proteolytic maturation of the polyprotein encoding the major capsid proteins (VP2 and VP3). Infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV), the prototype of the aquabirnavirus genus, is the causative agent of a contagious disease in fish which has a large economic impact on aquaculture. IPNV VP4 is a 226-residue (24.0 kDa) serine protease that utilizes a Ser/Lys catalytic dyad mechanism (Ser633 and Lys674). Several truncated and mutant forms of VP4 were expressed in a recombinant expression system, purified and screened for crystallization. Two different crystal forms diffract beyond 2.4 Å resolution. A triclinic crystal derived from one mutant construct has unit-cell parameters a = 41.7, b = 69.6, c = 191.6 Å, α = 93.0, β = 95.1, γ = 97.7°. A hexagonal crystal with space group P6122/ P6522 derived from another mutant construct has unit-cell parameters a = 77.4, b = 77.4, c = 136.9 Å. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The blotched snakehead virus (BSNV), an aquatic birnavirus, encodes a polyprotein (NH2-pVP2-X-VP4-VP3-COOH) that is processed through the proteolytic activity of its own protease (VP4) to liberate itself and the viral proteins pVP2, X and VP3. The protein pVP2 is further processed by VP4 to give rise to the capsid protein VP2 and four structural peptides. We report here the crystal structure of a VP4 protease from BSNV, which displays a catalytic serine/lysine dyad in its active site. This is the first crystal structure of a birnavirus protease and the first crystal structure of a viral protease that utilizes a lysine general base in its catalytic mechanism. The topology of the VP4 substrate binding site is consistent with the enzymes substrate specificity and a nucleophilic attack from the si-face of the substrates scissile bond. Despite low levels of sequence identity, VP4 shows similarities in its active site to other characterized Ser/Lys proteases such as signal peptidase, LexA protease and Lon protease. Together, the structure of VP4 provides insights into the mechanism of a recently characterized clan of serine proteases that utilize a lysine general base and reveals the structure of potential targets for antiviral therapy, especially for other related and economically important viruses, such as infectious bursal disease virus in poultry and infectious pancreatic necrosis virus in aquaculture. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Blotched snakehead virus (BSNV) is a member of the Birnaviridae family that requires a virally encoded protease known as VP4 in order to process its polyprotein into viral capsid protein precursors (pVP2 and VP3). VP4 belongs to a family of serine proteases that utilize a serine/lysine catalytic dyad mechanism. A mutant construct of VP4 with a short C-terminal truncation was overexpressed in Escherichia coli and purified to homogeneity for crystallization. Using the sitting-drop vapour-diffusion method at room temperature, protein crystals with two distinct morphologies were observed. Cubic crystals grown in PEG 2000 MME and magnesium acetate at pH 8.5 belong to space group I23, with unit-cell parameters a = b = c = 143.8 Å. Trigonal crystals grown in ammonium sulfate and glycerol at pH 8.5 belong to space group P321/ P312, with unit-cell parameters a =  b = 158.2, c = 126.4 Å. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study examined trends regarding religion and spirituality among Jewish and Bedouin female students studying education and sciences at Achva Academic College, a rural secular college in southern Israel. The Bedouin women all originated from an isolationist traditional society, vigilantly maintained over many years. Contrastingly, the Jewish women come from a secular or traditional society, which is not isolationist. Science and education are two completely different worlds of content. Science studies include analytical research, with the students carrying out experiments in laboratories and within the community, whereas education studies focus on pedagogy and transfer of knowledge. The study employed a questionnaire with Likert items regarding religion and spirituality. We found the Bedouin students were more religious than the Jewish ones, but spirituality levels were similar. This finding indicated that the Bedouin students have indeed broken down the barriers to academic education, but still have retained their traditional community framework. Likewise, we found that the students of science were less observant of religious practices in comparison to those studying education, but they were similar regarding spirituality and the theoretical aspects of religion. This finding showed that practical aspects of religion can be a factor influencing the choice of field of study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe the finding, in a museum jar, of the sixth known specimen of the Eritrean snake Platyceps largeni (Scätti, 2001) (synonym, Coluber largeni). The specimen is from Museri Island, Dahlak Archipelago in the Red Sea. This record is the first one for this island and it represents a ca. 50 km range extension of this species, hitherto known from five specimens in a tight cluster of three other islands. This find verifies Schätti's (2001) prediction that the species might be found in the nearby archipelago islands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vertebrate sex-determining mechanisms ( SDMs) are triggered by the genotype ( GSD), by temperature ( TSD), or occasionally, by both. The causes and consequences of SDM diversity remain enigmatic. Theory predicts SDM effects on species diversification, and life-span effects on SDM evolutionary turnover. Yet, evidence is conflicting in clades with labile SDMs, such as reptiles. Here, we investigate whether SDM is associated with diversification in turtles and lizards, and whether alterative factors, such as lifespan's effect on transition rates, could explain the relative prevalence of SDMs in turtles and lizards (including and excluding snakes). We assembled a comprehensive dataset of SDM states for squamates and turtles and leveraged large phylogenies for these two groups. We found no evidence that SDMs affect turtle, squamate, or lizard diversification. However, SDM transition rates differ between groups. In lizards TSD-to- GSD surpass GSD-to- TSD transitions, explaining the predominance of GSD lizards in nature. SDM transitions are fewer in turtles and the rates are similar to each other ( TSD-to- GSD equals GSD-to- TSD), which, coupled with TSD ancestry, could explain TSD's predominance in turtles. These contrasting patterns can be explained by differences in life history. Namely, our data support the notion that in general, shorter lizard lifespan renders TSD detrimental favoring GSD evolution in squamates, whereas turtle longevity permits TSD retention. Thus, based on the macro-evolutionary evidence we uncovered, we hypothesize that turtles and lizards followed different evolutionary trajectories with respect to SDM, likely mediated by differences in lifespan. Combined, our findings revealed a complex evolutionary interplay between SDMs and life histories that warrants further research that should make use of expanded datasets on unexamined taxa to enable more conclusive analyses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study tries to unveil the contribution of climatic shift in shaping the extreme body size diversity in terrestrial isopods (Oniscidea). Trying to explain size variation at an interspecific level, we test five hypotheses: (1) Bergmann's Rule and the temperature-size rule postulate large size in cold areas; (2) The metabolic cold adaptation theory postulates small animal sizes in cold environments; (3) The primary productivity hypothesis predicts size increase in resource-rich areas; (4) The aridity resistance hypothesis predicts large size in arid regions; and (5). The acidosis hypothesis predicts smaller size with decreasing soil pH. Globally, Bergmann's rule and the aridity hypothesis are weakly supported. Among families and genera, results are variable and idiosyncratic. Conglobating species sizes provide weak support for the acidosis hypothesis. Overall, size is strongly affected by familial affiliation. Isopod size evolution seems to be mainly affected by phylogenetically constrained life-history traits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Islands organisms usually have fewer predator and competitor species than mainland ones. This is thought to result in high population densities on islands. We hypothesize that insular lizards have denser populations than mainland species and that density, in general, is negatively correlated with competitor and predator richness. Location Global. Methods We compared densities of 346 lizard species on islands and the mainland while examining the relationship between density and, predator and competitor richness, primary productivity, seasonality and island area. We controlled for phylogenetic non-independence, body mass and study area, which are known to strongly affect population density. Results Insular populations (especially on snake-free islands) are denser than mainland ones. Mainland populations of lizard species that also inhabit islands were denser than those of species that do not inhabit islands. Population density was the highest on islands with low net primary productivity and was not significantly affected by competitor or predator richness. Moreover, insular populations show high density regardless of island area. Main conclusions We conclude that the ability of mainland species to reach high population densities may increase their chances in reaching and successfully colonizing islands. We postulate that population density may be affected by predator and competitor density rather than by their richness. Density increase on islands may result not from the environmental simplicity of island faunas but through propagule sorting or pressure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: The aim was to determine how reptile populations respond to anthropogenic habitat modification and determine whether species traits and environmental factors influence such responses. Location: Global. Time period: 1981–2018. Major taxa studied: Squamata. Methods: We compiled a database of 56 studies reporting how habitat modification affects reptile abundance and calculated standardized mean differences in abundance (Hedges' g). We used Bayesian meta‐analytical models to test whether responses to habitat modification depended on body size, clutch size, reproductive mode, habitat specialization, range size, disturbance type, vegetation type, temperature and precipitation. Results: Based on 815 effect sizes from 376 species, we found an overall negative effect of habitat modification on reptile abundance (mean Hedges' g = −0.43, 95% credible intervals = −0.61 to −0.26). Reptile abundance was, on average, one‐third lower in modified compared with unmodified habitats. Small range sizes and small clutch sizes were associated with more negative responses to habitat modification, although the responses were weak and the credible intervals overlapped zero. We detected no effects of body size, habitat specialization, reproductive mode (egg‐laying or live‐bearing), temperature or precipitation. Some families exhibited more negative responses than others, although overall there was no phylogenetic signal in the data. Mining had the most negative impacts on reptile abundance, followed by agriculture, grazing, plantations and patch size reduction, whereas the mean effect of logging was neutral. Main conclusions: Habitat modification is a key cause of reptile population declines, although there is variability in responses both within and between species, families and vegetation types. The effect of disturbance type appeared to be related to the intensity of habitat modification. Ongoing development of environmentally sustainable practices that ameliorate anthropogenic impacts is urgently needed to prevent declines in reptile populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Animal lifespan is determined by extrinsic and intrinsic factors causing mortality. According to the evolutionary theories of senescence, when mortality pressures are low, animals delay reproduction. This enables species to grow more slowly and, consequently, natural selection can act against harmful mutations in adulthood, thereby increasing lifespans. To test predictions of these theories we assembled a dataset on the maximum longevities and relevant ecological variables of 1320 reptilian species. Correcting for phylogeny, we modelled the link between reptile longevity and factors such as body size, microhabitat, activity period, insularity, annual temperature, temperature seasonality, elevation and clutch size that we hypothesized will affect extrinsic mortality rates and hence lifespan. Body mass explained a small proportion of the variance in reptile longevity. Species living on islands, and in colder and more seasonal environments, lived longer. Observed maximum longevity was positively associated with the number of individuals used to estimate it. Our results suggest that species exposed to reduced extrinsic and intrinsic mortality pressures (lower predation, lower metabolic rates and shorter activity periods) live longer. Sampling more individuals increases the chances of finding older specimens and should be corrected for when studying maximum longevity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A correction to the article "Sex determination, longevity, and the birth and death of reptilian species", is presented.

Modern conservation operates at the nexus of biological and social influences. While the importance of social and cultural factors is often mentioned, defining, measuring and comparing these factors remains a significant challenge. Here, we explore a novel method to quantify cultural interest in all extant reptile species using Wikipedia — a large, open-access online encyclopaedia. We analysed all page views of reptile species viewed during 2014 in all of Wikipedia's language editions. We compared species' page view numbers across languages and in relationship to their spatial distribution, phylogeny, threat status and various other biological attributes. We found that the three species with most page views are shared across major language editions, beyond these, page view ranks of species tend to be specific to particular language editions. Interest within a language is mostly focused on reptiles found in the regions where the language is spoken. Overall, interest is greater for reptiles that are venomous, endangered, widely distributed, larger and that have been described earlier. However, within individual reptile families not all the above factors predict page views. Most families contain at least one species in the top 5% of page views, but 29 families (with 1,450 species) have no ‘high interest species’ in them. Overall, our analyses elucidate novel patterns of human interests in nature over large geographical, cultural and taxonomic spectra using big-data techniques. Such approaches hold much promise for incorporating social perceptions in future conservation practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modern conservation operates at the nexus of biological and social influences. While the importance of social and cultural factors is often mentioned, defining, measuring and comparing these factors remains a significant challenge. Here, we explore a novel method to quantify cultural interest in all extant reptile species using Wikipedia — a large, open-access online encyclopaedia. We analysed all page views of reptile species viewed during 2014 in all of Wikipedia's language editions. We compared species' page view numbers across languages and in relationship to their spatial distribution, phylogeny, threat status and various other biological attributes. We found that the three species with most page views are shared across major language editions, beyond these, page view ranks of species tend to be specific to particular language editions. Interest within a language is mostly focused on reptiles found in the regions where the language is spoken. Overall, interest is greater for reptiles that are venomous, endangered, widely distributed, larger and that have been described earlier. However, within individual reptile families not all the above factors predict page views. Most families contain at least one species in the top 5% of page views, but 29 families (with 1,450 species) have no ‘high interest species’ in them. Overall, our analyses elucidate novel patterns of human interests in nature over large geographical, cultural and taxonomic spectra using big-data techniques. Such approaches hold much promise for incorporating social perceptions in future conservation practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human activities, especially conversion and degradation of habitats, are causing global biodiversity declines. How local ecological assemblages are responding is less clear-a concern given their importance for many ecosystem functions and services. We analysed a terrestrial assemblage database of unprecedented geographic and taxonomic coverage to quantify local biodiversity responses to land use and related changes. Here we show that in the worst-affected habitats, these pressures reduce within-sample species richness by an average of 76.5%, total abundance by 39.5% and rarefaction-based richness by 40.3%. We estimate that, globally, these pressures have already slightly reduced average within-sample richness (by 13.6%), total abundance (10.7%) and rarefaction-based richness (8.1%), with changes showing marked spatial variation. Rapid further losses are predicted under a business-as-usual land-use scenario; within-sample richness is projected to fall by a further 3.4% globally by 2100, with losses concentrated in biodiverse but economically poor countries. Strong mitigation can deliver much more positive biodiversity changes (up to a 1.9% average increase) that are less strongly related to countries' socioeconomic status. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Temperature influences most components of animal ecology and life history - but what kind of temperature? Physiologists usually examine the influence of body temperatures, while biogeographers and macroecologists tend to focus on environmental temperatures. We aim to examine the relationship between these two measures, to determine the factors that affect lizard body temperatures and to test the effect of both temperature measures on lizard life history. Location World-wide. Methods We used a large (861 species) global dataset of lizard body temperatures, and the mean annual temperatures across their geographic ranges to examine the relationships between body and mean annual temperatures. We then examined factors influencing body temperatures, and tested for the influence of both on ecological and life-history traits while accounting for the influence of shared ancestry. Results Body temperatures and mean annual temperatures are uncorrelated. However, accounting for activity time (nocturnal species have low body temperatures), use of space (fossorial and semi-aquatic species are 'colder'), insularity (mainland species are 'hotter') and phylogeny, the two temperatures are positively correlated. High body temperatures are only associated with larger hatchlings and increased rates of biomass production. Annual temperatures are positively correlated with clutch frequency and annual longevity, and negatively correlated with clutch size, age at first reproduction and longevity. Main conclusions Lizards with low body temperatures do not seem to have 'slower' life-history attributes than species with high body temperatures. The longer seasons prevalent in warm regions, and physiological processes that operate while lizards are inactive (but warm enough), make environmental temperatures better predictors of lizard life-history variation than body temperatures. This surprisingly greater effect of environmental temperatures on lizard life histories hints that global warming may have a profound influence on lizard ecology and evolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]