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Populations in tropical and subtropical developing countries are exposed to largely uncontrolled levels of aflatoxins through food. These countries (especially in Africa and Asia) also present a high prevalence of stunting. Studies have reported an association between aflatoxin exposure and growth impairment in children but there is not yet conclusive evidence that aflatoxins are a significant cause of stunting in children, thus further research is warranted. In this cross-sectional study, 204 low-income households were randomly selected in two low-income areas of Nairobi, Kenya. Korogocho is a higher population density area and Dagoretti a lower population density area. We asked questions about household demographics and a 24-hour dietary recall was conducted in children aged 1-3 years. Child anthropometric measurements were also conducted. Height-for-age Z-scores (HAZ), weight-for-age Z-scores (WAZ) and weight-for-height Z-scores (WHZ) were calculated for each child using World Health Organization (WHO) growth standards reference data. Samples of foods were taken from the household or from the retailer for analysis using competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Laboratory results for aflatoxin levels in the food samples collected were used to calculate the daily aflatoxin intake, according to the results from the dietary assessment. The study found 41% of children sampled had stunted growth. Boys were more stunted than girls (p=0.057) and Korogocho had more stunted children than Dagoretti (p=0.041). In all, 98% of food samples collected tested positive for aflatoxin and there was an average exposure to aflatoxins of 21.3 ng/kg bodyweight per day. Exposure to aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), location and sex were significantly associated with HAZ, with boys and children from Korogocho having lower HAZ, and AFM1 was negatively associated with HAZ (p=0.047), indicating that AFM1 was associated with stunting. There was no association between total aflatoxins (aflatoxin B [AFB] and aflatoxin G [AFG]) and HAZ, WAZ and WHZ. The study showed a high prevalence of malnutrition, especially stunting, in two low-income urban sites, and this was most pronounced in the high-density area. The reported association between AFM1 and stunted children indicates that more research is needed on the health impacts of this aflatoxin in growing children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Animal milk is an important contributor to women's dietary diversity, especially among pastoral communities where access to diverse diets is limited. While there have been numerous large-scale milk development projects in East Africa, few examples of propoor milk collective action projects exist that focus on expanding milk production and consumption by women. This study reports cross-sectional findings on the association between participation in a pro-poor dairy development project and women's milk consumption in rural Tanzania. Socio-demographic and health-related characteristics associated with milk consumption were assessed as well. The study utilized data from a sample of 272 women who participated in two surveys conducted in the Morogoro and Tanga regions of Tanzania in 2015. Chi-square and Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel analyses identified factors associated with whether milk was consumed in the previous 24-hour period. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) identified factors associated with frequency of milk consumption. Multivariable logistic regression was applied to estimate associations between program participation, socio-demographic, health characteristics, milk consumption behavior. Seventy-six percent of women reported drinking milk in the previous 24-hour period. The mean frequency of milk intake among the control group was 1.61 times 2.15 times among the intervention group. The adjusted odds of consuming any milk in the previous 24 hours were 16.1 (95% CI 1.72-150.44) times greater for Maasai than other tribes. Among Maasai, the adjusted odds of consuming milk 3-4 times per day compared to 1-2 times per day were 9.96 (95% CI 1.03 - 96.09) times greater for those in the dairy development group compared to the control. Among non-Maasai, the adjusted odds of consuming any milk in the prior 24 hours was 3.45 (95% CI 1.07- 11.05) times greater for those in the dairy development group compared to the control. Milk consumption was greatest among Maasai and communities with propoor dairy development programs. Findings suggest that participation in a Pro-poor agricultural intervention to improve milk production may improve women's milk consumption and ultimately help to address rural poverty and improve household nutrition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The empowerment of women in the livestock sector is fundamental to achieve gender equality. It also is instrumental for increased household productivity and improved household health and nutrition. Diverse strategies exist to empower women, yet these strategies are difficult to prioritize without a reliable and adapted means to measure women's empowerment. One quantitative measure is the Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI). Despite its reliability in certain agricultural contexts, the WEAI requires adaptation in settings where livestock farming is the dominant form of livelihood. Using the WEAI as a starting point, a multidisciplinary team of researchers developed the Women's Empowerment in Livestock Index (WELI), a new index to assess the empowerment of women in the livestock sector. This paper presents the WELI and the dimensions of empowerment it includes: (1) decisions about agricultural production; (2) decisions related to nutrition; (3) access to and control over resources; (4) control and use of income; (5) access to and control of opportunities; and (6) workload and control over own time. The paper illustrates the use of the WELI by introducing pilot findings from dairy smallholders in four districts of northern Tanzania. The paper addresses considerations for the appropriate use and adaptation of the WELI to balance the needs for context specificity and cross-cultural comparisons; it also discusses its limitations. The paper recommends participatory and qualitative methods that are complementary to the WELI to provide context-specific insights on the processes of women's empowerment in the livestock sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]