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Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) are two gastrointestinal (GI) conditions known to be exacerbated by traumatic life experiences. One way in which these experiences might influence individuals' susceptibility to GI pathology, is by reducing their ability to deal with adversities effectively and predisposing them to passive coping styles that leave them vulnerable to the somatic effects of trauma. To validate this hypothesis, the present cross‐sectional study assessed the mediating effect of coping dispositions on the association between trauma and GI disease activity in an adult sample of 189 bowel patients (94 IBD, 95 IBS) and 92 controls. Results confirmed that GI patients exhibit significantly more cumulative trauma, pervasive feelings of uncontrollability and passive coping strategies than controls. Moreover, the use of passive coping styles was positively associated with the accumulation of trauma and the expression of GI symptoms. Using hierarchical regression and mediation analyses, we found support for the sequential model postulating passive coping styles as (partial) mediators of trauma‐induced (GI) disease manifestations. Specifically, out of all coping styles associated with cumulative trauma, behavioural disengagement most powerfully mediated the effect of trauma on GI symptom severity, accounting for 12% (IBD) to 14% (IBS) of its total effect. A somewhat smaller mediating role was observed for social support coping, the reduced reliance on which explained 7% (IBS) to 10% (IBD) of trauma's total effect. Finally, neuroticism acted as a channel through which past traumatization affected subjects' proneness to behavioural disengagement and, consequently, their GI disease activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anxiety disorders are characterized by avoidance of aversive- and similar but innocuous stimuli. As avoidance hinders daily life, it is important to examine factors that influence avoidance behaviour. The aim of the present study was to examine the impact of a reduction in the intensity of an aversive stimulus (shock, US) on goal-directed avoidance- and avoidance generalization. Using a categorical fear learning task, students (n = 47) learned that one category of pictures (e.g., sunny, CS+) was followed by a shock whereas another category was not (e.g., rainy, CS-). Next, participants learned avoiding the shock by pressing the spacebar. Subsequently, for half of the participants shock levels were reduced (UShalf), for the other half the level remained the same (USsame). At test, original CS+ and CS- pictures were interspersed with novel category members (GCS+; GCS-) and stimuli that belonged to both categories (Amb). Participants expected the US to occur on CS+ and GCS+ stimuli, but not on CS- and GCS- stimuli. Therefore, CS+ and GCS+ stimuli, but not CS- and GCS-, were avoided. For Amb the US expectancy and avoidance responses fell in between the CS+ and CS- categories. Reduction of the US had no effect on responding. Avoidance was relatively costless, and the reduced US was still experienced as aversive, probably therefore participants continued avoiding the US. For future studies, we suggest inclusion of avoidance costs and/or a more fine-grained avoidance measure to further explore the effects of US intensity reduction on avoidance behaviour. • Avoidance behaviour is linked to the fear elicited by an upcoming negative event. • Reducing the intensity of the negative event does not change avoidance behaviour. • Including avoidance costs is recommended to examine reduction in intensity effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic health condition exacerbated by negative emotional stress experiences. In the current study, we examined whether the outbreak of the COVID‐19 pandemic coincided with an increase in stress experiences and accordingly an aggravation of disease activity in IBD patients. Sixty‐three IBD patients (30 Crohn's disease or CD, 33 ulcerative colitis) completed an online survey during the COVID‐19‐related lockdown, assessing clinical disease activity, disease‐related quality of life, presence of functional gastrointestinal symptoms, social isolation and stress experiences. Scores were then compared to pre‐lockdown baseline screening. The pandemic yielded a significant baseline‐to‐lockdown increase in emotional stress and social isolation. Stress increments, particularly those occasioned by interpersonal tension and excessive interpersonal proximity, were associated with a worsening of functional gastrointestinal symptoms. Exacerbations of loneliness coincided with an escalation of CD activity, functional gastrointestinal symptoms and a decline in subjective health. Lastly, COVID‐19 anxiety was significantly related to CD symptom severity and social dysfunction. The findings show that shifts in IBD expression are closely linked to changes in emotional stress experiences and interpersonal relatedness. As such, they contribute to a better understanding of inter‐individual differences in IBD progression and provide leads for therapeutic interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: In order to effectively feign post‐traumatic stress disorder, a person needs to confabulate an exposure narrative and to fabricate symptoms of high distress. The Verifiability Approach (VA) is a lie‐detection method based on the notion that truth tellers' narratives include more verifiable (checkable) information than liars' narratives. The Self‐Report Symptom Inventory (SRSI) is a measure of over‐reporting, and it includes genuine symptoms and pseudosymptoms that are likely to be endorsed in fabricated symptom reports. In this study, we examined whether the VA can help discriminate the fabricated exposure narratives, and whether the SRSI can aid screening for symptom over‐reporting. Method: One group of participants (truth tellers) witnessed a vehicle crash scene using the Virtual Reality paradigm (n = 22), while the other group (feigners) was instructed to fabricate such an experience (n = 46). All the participants wrote the exposure narratives and completed the SRSI. Results: Feigners produced non‐verifiable (vague) and lengthier narratives than truth tellers, who reported a higher proportion of checkable information. Regarding the symptom reports, feigners endorsed more of trauma‐related genuine symptoms and pseudosymptoms than truth tellers. Conclusion: The non‐verifiable details and the proportion of verifiable details, together with the SRSI subscales, can assist explaining the reporting strategies of those feigning negative exposures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives: It is assumed that fear responses can be altered by changing the contingency between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US), or by devaluing the present mental representation of the US. The aim of the present study was to compare the efficacy of contingency- and devaluation-based intervention techniques on the diminishment in - and return of fear. We hypothesized that extinction (EXT, contingency-based) would outperform devaluation-based techniques regarding contingency measures, but that devaluation-based techniques would be most effective in reducing the mental representation of the US. Additionally, we expected that incorporations of the US during devaluation would result in less reinstatement of the US averseness.Methods: Healthy participants received a fear conditioning paradigm followed by one of three interventions: extinction (EXT, contingency-based), imagery rescripting (ImRs, devaluation-based) or eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR, devaluation-based). A reinstatement procedure and test followed the next day.Results: EXT was indeed most successful in diminishing contingency-based US expectancies and skin conductance responses (SCRs), but all interventions were equally successful in reducing the averseness of the mental US representation. After reinstatement EXT showed lowest expectancies and SCRs; no differences were observed between the conditions concerning the mental US representation.Limitations: A partial reinforcement schedule was used, resulting in a vast amount of contingency unaware participants. Additionally, a non-clinical sample was used, which may limit the generalizability to clinical populations.Conclusion: EXT is most effective in reducing conditioned fear responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives: The aim of the present study was to replicate our previous study and to further examine the relation between fear and positive and negative confirmation bias in children.Methods: Fifty-three non-clinical children (9-13 years) were shown pictures of a kindly-perceived (quokka) and a dangerous-looking (aye aye) animal. For each animal, levels of fear and information seeking patterns were obtained.Results: The results indicated that the aye aye was rated as more threatening and less kind than the quokka. For the aye aye more negative than neutral or positive information was selected; no differences were observed for the quokka. Regardless of type of animal, higher fear levels coincided with more search for negative information. Positive confirmation bias in the quokka was indirectly observed as low fear levels were associated with an increased search for positive information. Finally, for the quokka searching negative information coincided with an increase in the scariness of the quokka; this pattern was absent for the aye aye.Limitations: Though the results are informative, no clinically anxious children were tested, a positive beliefs questionnaire was lacking and children were forced to select one of the presented answer alternatives.Conclusions: The present study indicates that the mere perception of danger can trigger confirmation bias; a positive view can, in case of low fear levels, result in increased search for positive information. Additionally, a relation was observed between increased negative attitude and search for negative information. The results, implications and suggestions for future research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present cross-sectional study explored the relations between fear-enhancing parenting behaviors (modeling and threat information transmission) and children's cognitive biases and anxiety symptoms. Participants were 258 children aged 7-12 years (132 boys and 126 girls), and their mothers (n = 199) and/or fathers (n = 117). Children and parents completed the Parental Enhancement of Anxious Cognitions questionnaire, which measures parental modeling and threat information transmission, while children also filled in a scale for assessing anxiety symptoms. In addition, children conducted a number of computerized tasks for measuring confirmation and interpretation bias. The data indicated that both biases mediated the relationship between threat information transmission (of both parents) and children's anxiety symptoms. Only interpretation bias significantly mediated the relationship between modeling (of mothers) and anxiety symptoms. These findings give partial support for the hypothesis that cognitive biases play a mediating role in the relation between fear-enhancing parental behaviors and children's anxiety symptoms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During imagery rescripting (ImRs) an aversive memory is relived and transformed to have a more positive outcome. ImRs is frequently applied in psychological treatment and is known to reduce intrusions and distress of the memory. However, little is known about the necessity to incorporate the central aversive parts of the memory in ImRs. To examine this necessity one hundred participants watched an aversive film and were subsequently randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions: ImRs including the aversive scenes (Late ImRs), ImRs without the aversive scenes (Early ImRs), imaginal exposure (IE) or a control condition (Cont). Participants in the IE intervention reported the highest distress levels during the intervention; Cont resulted in the lowest levels of self-reported distress. For the intrusion frequency, only the late ImRs resulted in fewer intrusions compared to the Cont condition; Early ImRs produced significantly more intrusions than the Late ImRs or IE condition. Finally, the intrusions of the Late ImRs condition were reported as less vivid compared to the other conditions. To conclude, it seems beneficial including aversive scenes in ImRs after an analogue trauma induction. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The purpose of this study was to examine confirmation bias in children without explicitly inducing fear. Eighty non-clinical children (7-13 years) were shown pictures of a neutral animal (quokka) and two dangerous-looking animals (aye aye and possum). For each animal, levels of perceived fear, threat and request for additional threatening or non-threatening information were obtained. A behavioral approach test (BAT) was included as behavioral measure of fear. The results indicated that the aye aye and possum were rated as more threatening and fearful than the quokka. For the aye aye and possum higher fear levels coincided with search for more threatening than non-threatening information. This pattern was absent in non-fearful children and for the non-threatening quokka. During the BAT the quokka was more often approached first compared to the aye aye and possum. Our findings suggest that confirmation bias in children can be observed without using verbal fear induction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anxiety and depression frequently co-occur and may share similar deficits in the processing of emotional stimuli. High anxiety is associated with a failure in the acquisition and extinction of fear conditioning. Despite the supposed common deficits, no research has been conducted on fear acquisition and extinction in depression. The main aim of the present study was to investigate and compare fear acquisition and extinction in anxiety- and depression-prone participants. Non-clinical anxious, depressive, anxious-depressive and control participants performed a fear discrimination task. During acquisition, the CS+ predicted an aversive event (unconditioned stimulus, US) and the CS− safety (no US). During extinction, the CS+ was no longer followed by the US, rendering it (temporarily) into a safety signal. On each CS participants rated their US expectancy; skin conductance responses (SCRs) were measured throughout. The expectancy scores indicated that high anxiety resulted in less safety learning during acquisition and extinction; no effect of depression was observed. SCRs showed that high-anxiety persons displayed less discrimination learning (CS+ minus CS−) during acquisition than low-anxiety persons. During extinction, high-depression persons demonstrated more discriminative SCR than low-depression persons. The observed discrepancies in response patterns of high-anxiety and -depression persons seem to indicate distinctive information processing of emotional stimuli. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Background and objectives: Exposure therapy is often used as treatment for anxiety disorders. However, a change in context after exposure can result in fear renewal. This renewal can be attenuated by using retrieval cues stemming from the exposure context. The present study investigated the effect of such a cue in spider-fearful persons. Methods: Thirty-three participants underwent an in vivo exposure session while wearing a bracelet (retrieval cue). After exposure, half of the participants continued to wear the bracelet at home until follow-up (cue groups); the other half handed over the bracelet after exposure (no cue groups). Half of the participants in each group received the follow-up in the exposure context (AAcue and AAnocue); for the other half follow-up was conducted in a novel environment (ABcue and ABnocue). Results: A switch in context at follow-up resulted in more self-reported anxiety and arousal compared to no switch. However, the retrieval cue did not attenuate this renewed responding. Limitations: The number of participant per condition was limited, which might have obscured possible retrieval cue effects due to a lack of power. Additionally, information about the retrieval cue was provided after exposure, which might have weakened the association between the cue and exposure therapy. Furthermore, no autonomic measures were incorporated, restricting the effect to self-report measures. For future studies we would recommend to explicitly link the retrieval cue before onset of the exposure session and to incorporate autonomic measures. Conclusions: Our findings indicate that a switch in context resulted in more self-reported anxiety and arousal, but that a cue stemming from the exposure context did not attenuate this renewal. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Objective: Although extinction is highly effective in reducing a conditioned fear response, return of the fear response (renewal) outside the extinction context often occurs. The present study investigated whether US devaluation, through imagery rescripting during extinction, resulted in less renewal than mere extinction. Method: Seventy psychology students were subjected to a fear conditioning paradigm. During fear acquisition CS+ was always followed by the US, whereas CS− was never followed by the US. For all groups the acquisition phase took place in context A. During extinction both CS+ and CS− were offered, but no US was presented. For three groups extinction was conducted in a different context, context B (ABA groups). The fourth group received extinction in the acquisition context (AAA group) in order to demonstrate that renewal indeed took place. During extinction, participants received either an imagery rescripting (IR) instruction to devaluate the US (ABAir), a US-unrelated imagination instruction to assess the general influence of imagination (ABAcont), or no instruction at all (ABAno and AAAno). Subsequently, testing occurred for all groups in the acquisition context A. Results: The results indicated that renewal of the US expectancy ratings was reduced if imagery rescripting (ABAir) was added to mere extinction (ABAno). Next to the reduction in renewal, imagery rescripting (ABAir) also resulted in the devaluation of the US valence, indicating that the mental representation of the US had changed. These findings are not only in line with contemporary conditioning theories, but also suggest that adding imagery rescripting to extinction might be beneficial in the treatment of anxiety problems. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The present human fear conditioning study examined whether the valence of an extinction cue has a differential effect on attenuating renewal that is induced by removal of the extinction context. Additionally, the study aimed to assess whether such attenuating effect is based on a modulatory or safety-signal role of the cue. In acquisition, extinction, and test stages of the experiment, human participants received pairings of human faces, presented against a particular background color, with the presence or absence of an aversive auditory stimulus. Experimental groups differed in the valence of a cue that was presented during extinction, in whether or not extinction took place against a different background color than present during acquisition and testing, and in whether the extinction cue was present or absent at test. The conditioned response consisted of auditory-stimulus expectancy ratings. It was hypothesized that a positively valued extinction cue yields faster extinction, stronger attenuation of renewal, and better transfer of its inhibitory power to non-extinguished stimuli than a negatively valued cue. All three hypotheses were confirmed, suggesting that the positive, but not the negative, cue had become a safety signal. The results were discussed in the framework of extinction-based exposure treatments. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The objective of this study was to examine response inhibition- and feedback-related neural activity in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) using event-related functional MRI. Sixteen male adults with ADHD and 13 healthy/normal controls participated in this study and performed a modified Go/NoGo task. Behaviourally, attention and inhibition problems in the ADHD group were observed; no feedback-related differences between the groups were detected. The neuroimaging data showed that the ADHD group displayed more activation in the inferior frontal gyrus and putamen during response inhibition. During feedback-related processes, the ADHD group displayed less activation in the inferior frontal/orbitofrontal cortex, hippocampus/nucleus accumbens, and caudate nucleus, but more activity in the inferior frontal gyrus. These results indicate that at least two distinguishable underlying brain networks related to response inhibition and feedback are altered in adults with ADHD. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In the present study, it was investigated by employing a human fear conditioning paradigm whether an extinction retrieval cue can attenuate renewal of conditioned responding after an extinction treatment procedure, and if so, what the precise role of such an extinction cue comprises. It was hypothesized that such a cue can attenuate renewal and would function as a safety signal capable of directly inhibiting the expectancy of an aversive outcome and conditioned skin conductance responding to a conditioned stimulus. The results demonstrated that the extinguished expectancy of an aversive outcome was renewed when the CS was presented outside the extinction context and that an extinction cue attenuated this effect. This extinction cue, however, only transferred its inhibitory properties to other, non-extinguished stimuli when there was no contextual switch. This safety signal function was not observed after a switch in context. Possible functions of the extinction cue and its application in extinction-based exposure treatments are discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The objective of this study was to examine executive functioning in children with Specific Language Impairment (SLI) using functional MRI. Six children with SLI and seven control children participated in this study and received a task-switching paradigm. No specific deficit in executive control was observed at the behavioral level in children with SLI. However, the neuroimaging data did show remarkable differences between the SLI and control children. The children with SLI recruited frontal and cingulate areas, normally associated with executive control, even when the task did not require them in the children without SLI. This might indicate that the task was more demanding for the SLI group and that compensatory mechanisms were engaged for successful task performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Age-related changes in mental flexibility, in the form of task switching, were assessed in 292 children (58–156 months old). Task switching was examined with a new task for young children, the Switch Task for Children (STC). The STC consists of two easy, comparable games and does not require reading skills, which makes it suitable for children younger than 6 years of age. The aims of the present study were: (1) to evaluate the STC; (2) to examine task switching in young children; and (3) to study age-related changes in task switching across childhood. The results indicated that children younger than 6 years are able to switch between two tasks and that general performance increased with age. Young children (58–89 months) displayed a larger global switch cost, that is they made more errors when the tasks were presented randomly compared with a repeated-task baseline, than older children (106–156 months). These findings suggest that the STC is a useful task for detecting task-switching abilities in young children and that the ability to maintain and manipulate two different tasks in working memory, is present, but not yet fully developed, in young children. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Fruit and vegetable consumption is worldwide too low, resulting in poor diet quality and health-related problems. A cognitive factor that might contribute to this low consumption is confirmation bias. Confirmation bias has been established in anxiety research and comprises the tendency to search for reinforcing negative information, while ignoring counter attitudinal information. If applicable to food, asking for negative food information reinforces the negative attitude and decreases the willingness to try (novel) food. The aim of the current study was twofold. First, to examine if confirmation bias translates to food stimuli. Second, to investigate if this bias is exaggerated in persons with higher levels of food neophobia. To this end, 117 participants (age M = 21.45, SD = 4.48) carried out an online study. They filled in the food neophobia scale (FNS) and performed a search for additional information scale (SAIS) task. Four novel fruits were used, two looking tasteful (pomelo and rose apple) and two looking non-tasteful (black sapote and noni fruit). Participants rated their willingness to eat these fruits and subsequently could indicate how eager they were to receive positive or negative information regarding that fruit. The results indicated that the participants were more willing to try the tasteful looking fruits than the non-tasteful. Additionally, higher levels of food neophobia coincided with less willingness to eat all fruits. Confirmation bias was observed, more negative information was requested for the non-tasteful than for the tasteful fruits. This bias was not related to levels of food neophobia. These results are important as confirmation bias might make people even more negative towards novel foods and could contribute to even less fruit and vegetable consumption, especially when they look less appetizing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives: Most people are exposed to a violent or life-threatening situation during their lives, but only a minority develops a stress-related disorder. To examine risk factors for the development of stress-related symptoms, such as intrusions and avoidance, analogue trauma studies are necessary. The often-used trauma film paradigm has proven to be valuable to examine intrusions, but inherently to its technique is less suitable for assessing behavioral avoidance, a core symptom of stress-related disorders. The aim of the present study was twofold, first to further develop an analogue that explicitly addresses behavioral avoidance and second, to link previously-established risk factors for the development of stress-related symptoms.Method: Eighty-two healthy participants were subjected to a trauma induction using virtual reality (VR). At follow-up, participants were placed in a similar VR environment and could approach or avoid the trauma-scene, a trauma-related scene or a neutral, unrelated scene. Several pre- and peri-trauma risk factors were measured.Results: The VR paradigm increased negative mood and heart rate, decreased positive mood and heart rate variability, and resulted in stress-related symptoms as trauma-related thoughts and beliefs, intrusions and avoidance behavior. The most prominent risk factors that contributed to the stress-related symptoms were negative emotions during the trauma induction, trait anxiety, and avoidant coping strategies.Limitations: The stress-related symptoms were mild, resulting in a vast amount of participants without intrusions and limited avoidance behavior.Conclusion: The current VR paradigm can elicit stress-related symptoms, including avoidance; risk factors contributing to these symptoms were similar to those observed in clinical research, indicating the potential of the general set up. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Acute stress has been found to impair the flexible updating of stimulus − outcome associations. However, there is a lack of studies investigating the effect of acute stress on the flexible updating of stimulus–response associations, like active avoidance responses. The current study used an avoidance reversal learning paradigm to address this question. Sixty‐one participants learned that a red dot was associated with an aversive sound, whereas a green dot was not (Pavlovian Acquisition phase). Next, they were trained to avoid the aversive stimulus by selectively pressing a button in response to the red, but not the green, dot (Avoidance Acquisition phase). Subsequently, participants either underwent a stress induction task or a no‐stress control task. The flexible updating of expectancies of the US and avoidance responses were assessed after reversal of the original contingencies (Reversal Test). Acute stress did not impair the flexible updating of avoidance responses during the Reversal Test. In contrast, results showed that in the stress group the expectancies of the aversive sound were more in accordance with the reversed contingencies compared to the ratings of control participants. Additionally, cortisol responders avoided less often in comparison to cortisol non‐responders. Increased noradrenergic activity in stressed participants was related to impairments in the flexible updating of avoidance responses after contingency reversal, while this association was absent in the control participants. In conclusion, our results suggest that the autonomic response might account for shifting the balance toward inflexible updating of stimulus–outcome awareness while stress does not impair flexible updating of avoidance responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Childhood rejection of fruits and vegetables (F/V) has been associated with an immature food categorization system, characterized by difficulties in accurately categorizing and making inductions about foods. This may result in variations in the kind of category-based induction children use, such as relying on the color of a fruit/vegetable. Research indicates that children who reject food frequently tend to prioritize perceptual features like color and shape over abstract features, such as the type of food (e.g., tomato) when making food-related inductions. The way children categorize food can also impact what they remember about foods. Food rejection may therefore be related to better memory for perceptual features and diminished memory for abstract features. To explore this further, a pre-registered study was conducted to examine how category-based induction and memory relate to each other, and to children's food rejection. 107 children aged 4–6 years old performed a category-based induction and memory task related to F/V, based on color and shape (perceptual features), and type of food (abstract feature). A vegetable photo task measured vegetable acceptance, and parents completed the Child Food Rejection Scale (CFRS). Children generally used color-based induction and displayed better memory for F/V color. Performance on the two tasks was related: higher type-based induction for F/V was linked to better memory for the type of F/V. However, there were no associations found with food rejection. Which category young children use for inductive reasoning about food, is related to what they remember best about food. Nevertheless, our study did not establish a relationship between an immature food categorization system and food rejection. Other factors, such as food familiarity, might play a stronger role in children's food acceptance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most experimental avoidance paradigms lack either control over the experimental situation or simplify real-life avoidance behavior to a great extent, making it difficult to generalize the results to the complex approach-avoidance situations that anxious individuals face in daily life. The current study aimed to examine the usability of our recently developed free-exploratory avoidance paradigm in Virtual Reality (VR) that allows for the assessment of subjective as well as behavioral avoidance in participants with varying levels of spider fear. In a VR escape room, participants searched for cues to decipher a code-locked door. Opening a wooden box marked with a post-it note (conditioned stimulus, CS) resulted in exposure to a virtual crawling spider (unconditioned stimulus, US). Avoidance of the original CS and other objects marked with the CS (generalization stimuli, GSs; EXPgen condition) or non-marked (CONT condition) objects was measured via questionnaires and relative manipulation times in a novel room. We expected a positive linear relationship between US aversiveness (levels of spider fear) and (generalization of) fear and avoidance behaviors. Avoidance learning and generalization was demonstrated on both a subjective and behavioral level. Higher levels of spider fear were, overall, related to more negative emotions in response to the encounter with the spider, higher US expectancies for the GSs, and more self-reported and behavioral avoidance of the original CS and the GSs. Finally, we explored relationships between trait anxiety and intolerance of uncertainty and fear and avoidance (generalization), but no robust associations were observed. In conclusion, we confirmed the expected positive linear relationship between spider fear and (generalization of) fear and avoidance behaviors. Our results suggest that our free-exploratory VR avoidance paradigm is well-suited to investigate avoidance behaviors and the generalization of avoidance. • A free-exploratory Virtual Reality avoidance paradigm was employed. • Higher US aversiveness is associated with more fear and avoidance (generalization). • (Generalization of) avoidance was observed on a subjective and behavioral level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and aims: Interpreting pain- and illness-related stimuli as health-threatening is common among chronic pain patients but also occurs in the general population. As interpretation bias (IB) may affect pain perception and might even play part in the development and maintenance of chronic pain, it is important to improve our understanding of this concept. Several studies suggest an association between IB and pain-related anxiety. However, those studies often rely on verbal and pictorial IB tasks that do not entail a threat of actual pain, therefore lacking personal relevance for healthy participants. The current study investigated whether healthy individuals show an IB towards ambiguous health-related stimuli in a context of actual pain threat, and explored whether this bias is associated to pain anxiety constructs. Methods: Thirty-six healthy participants were conditioned to expect painful electrocutaneous shocks (unconditioned stimulus – US) after health-threat words (CS+) but not after neutral (non-health-threat) words (CS−) in order to establish fear of pain. Subsequently, they completed a verbal interpretation task that contained new CS+ and CS− stimuli as well as ambiguous non-reinforced health-threat and non-health-threat words. IB was assessed through shock expectancy ratings and startle responses to ambiguous and evident health threatening or neutral word stimuli. Pain-related anxiety was measured with validated questionnaires. Results: The results show a general IB towards ambiguous health-related words on pain expectancies but not on startle response. An exploratory analysis suggests that this effect exists irrespective of pain-related anxiety levels which however may be due to a lack of power. Conclusion: We present a novel experimental paradigm employing actual health threat that captures IB towards health-related stimuli in healthy individuals. Taken together, results provide evidence for the further consideration of IB as a latent vulnerability factor in the onset and maintenance of pain chronicity. In contrast to previous studies employing a safe, pain-free context, we found that healthy participants show an IB towards ambiguous health-related stimuli, when confronted with pain threat. Implications: Like chronic pain patients, healthy individuals display an IB towards health-threat stimuli when these stimuli become personally relevant by carrying information about pending health threat. Therefore, the presented paradigm could be valuable for pain-related cognitive bias research in healthy participants as it may have a higher ecological validity than previous study designs. Future studies will have to elucidate the influence of anxiety constructs on IB in larger samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Children's vegetable intake is in general below recommendations. It is known that self-selection of vegetables out of multiple options can increase intake in children. However, it is not clear if this effect is driven by a pre-existing preference for the selected food, or purely by having a choice. Allowing children to choose could create a positive bias and endorse feelings of autonomy, which could increase acceptance of the food and promote intake. The aim of the present pre-registered study was to investigate the effect of choice in promoting the acceptance of an unfamiliar vegetable during a blind-choice task. Children aged 4–5 years old (n = 161) were randomly assigned to the choice or no-choice condition. Each child was presented with three closed cups, containing a vegetable. The children were unaware that the cups contained the same vegetable, a piece of raw celeriac. In the choice condition, the children were able to choose a cup themselves whereas in the no-choice condition, the experimenter made the decision. We hypothesized that children in the choice condition would show more acceptance of the vegetable compared to children in the no-choice condition and that higher levels of picky eating would lead to less vegetable acceptance. The results demonstrated that choice indeed significantly increased vegetable acceptance (4.7 ± 1.7 versus 4.0 ± 1.9 on a 6-point scale), irrespective of pickiness in eating. In addition, picky children showed less acceptance of the vegetable compared to non-picky children. The results of this study imply that choice is an important factor in promoting unfamiliar vegetable intake in young children. Including children in the decision process may be a practical strategy for educators and caregivers to increase children's vegetable intake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined relationships between the self-conscious emotions of guilt and shame in both clinical ( N = 104) and non-clinical ( N = 477) (young) adolescents aged 11-18 years, who completed a questionnaire to assess perceived parental rearing behaviors (EMBU-C) and a scenario-based instrument to measure proneness to guilt and shame (SCEMAS). Results indicated that parental rearing dimensions were positively related to self-conscious emotions. Regarding the non-clinical sample, both favourable (emotional warmth) and unfavourable (rejection) paternal and maternal rearing dimensions were significant correlates of guilt- and shame-proneness. The results for the clinical sample were less conclusive: only maternal emotional warmth and rejection were found to be significantly associated with guilt and shame. Interestingly, no associations between any of the paternal rearing dimensions and self-conscious emotions emerged. Taken together, these results are in keeping with the notion that parental rearing factors are involved in the development of both adaptive and maladaptive self-conscious emotions in adolescents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Generalization gradients across different outcome measures were observed. • Stress increased shock expectancy to the stimulus perceptually closest to the CS+. • Stress did not affect generalization of skin conductance or avoidance responses. • Our results contribute to understanding stress- and anxiety-related pathologies. Research has demonstrated the spreading of fear from threat-related stimuli to perceptually similar, but innocuous, stimuli. Less is known, however, about the generalization of avoidance behavior. Given that stress is known to affect learning and memory, we were interested in the effect of acute stress on (over)generalization of fear and avoidance responses. On the first day, one geometrical shape was paired with a mild electrical stimulus (CS+), whereas another shape was not (CS−). One day later, after participants had been exposed to the Maastricht Acute Stress Test or a control task, generalization of avoidance responses and fear (shock expectancy and skin conductance responses) was tested to a range of perceptual generalization stimuli. Generalization gradients were observed across different outcome measures. Stress enhanced generalization of shock expectancy to the stimulus most similar to the CS+. Our findings confirm that stress can affect the generalization of fear, but further studies are warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives: Imagery rescripting (ImRs) is a promising therapeutic technique used in treatment for a variety of psychiatric disorders. During an ImRs session, an aversive disorder-related memory, is activated in imagination and rescripted to a more positive outcome. It has been shown to successfully weaken the negative cognitive meaning, so-called encapsulated beliefs of the targeted aversive memory. In many studies, ImRs is preceded by a cognitive restructuring (CR) technique focused on the encapsulated belief of the target memory. It is not clear whether adding such a CR technique is necessary or that ImRs as standalone technique can achieve comparable effects.Methods: Students with mild psychological distress (N = 53) were randomized over one session of cognitive restructuring plus imagery rescripting (CR + ImRs), a therapist attention placebo plus imagery rescripting (PLA + ImRs) and a double therapist attention placebo (PLA + PLA). Believability of the idiosyncratic encapsulated belief (primary outcome) and quality (vividness, distress and emotional connotation: secondary outcome) of the target memory were assessed at pre, post and at 1-week follow-up.Results: Results indicate that both, CR + ImRs and PLA + ImRs, reduced the believability of the encapsulated beliefs in greater extent than PLA + PLA. No differences appeared between the two ImRs conditions. For the secondary outcomes no differences between the three conditions were found.Limitations: This study should be seen as a pilot study, moreover a non-clinical sample was used.Conclusion: Findings suggest that a CR technique preceding ImRs is redundant. However, this study needs replication in a larger sample. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A Virtual Reality task with ecologically relevant avoidance costs was employed. • High avoidance costs resulted in less avoidance behaviour. • Avoidance behaviours protected acquired fear from extinction. • The results provide insight in how avoidance behaviours maintain fear responses. Approach-avoidance behaviours play a major role in the development and maintenance of anxiety disorders as repeated avoidance behaviours are assumed to prevent fear extinction. Approach-avoidance decisions (Conditioned Stimulus (CS)-avoidance and Unconditioned Stimulus (US)-avoidance) and their effect on fear extinction and renewal were investigated using a novel Virtual Reality fear conditioning procedure that included avoidance costs that are relevant in real-life settings (i.e., temporal delay and physical effort). Participants had to choose between a safe (low approach incentive, no US) and risky stimulus (high approach incentive, US in 75 %). After differential fear acquisition and avoidance learning, participants were randomized to an Avoidance condition or No Avoidance condition during fear extinction. Fear extinction took place in either the original contingency learning context or in a new context and was followed by a renewal test. Furthermore, the influence of trait anxiety, distress tolerance, and intolerance of uncertainty on approach-avoidance decisions was investigated. Exploratively, a second experiment with varying avoidance costs was conducted. Results showed that high (Study 1), but not low (Study 2), avoidance costs resulted in less avoidance behaviour. Even though there were no between-group differences, exploratory comparisons of avoiders and non-avoiders in both studies demonstrated that avoidance behaviours protected from extinction learning, resulting in the maintenance of retrospective US expectancies and a sustained preference for the safe stimulus. Finally, no renewal effect and no robust associations with the individual difference measures were found. Collectively, these findings provide insight in how avoidance behaviours maintain fear and how treatment might be improved by focusing on avoidance costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives: Pavlovian fear conditioning paradigms are valuable to investigate fear learning and the return of extinguished fear in the lab. However, their validity is limited, because the aversive stimuli (e.g., electric shocks) typically lack the modalities and complexity of real-world aversive experiences. To overcome this limitation, we examined fear acquisition, extinction and contextual renewal using an audiovisual unconditioned stimulus (US).Method: On day 1, 50 healthy participants completed an acquisition phase in a specific context (i.e., desk or bookcase, 'context A'). Pictures of colored lamps served as conditioned stimuli and an aversive film clip was used as US. On day 2, extinction took place in the same context ('context A') or in a different context ('context B'). Afterwards, renewal was tested in the acquisition context (AAA vs. ABA design).Results: As hypothesized, fear acquisition and extinction, as measured by US expectancy ratings, fear potentiated startle (FPS), and skin conductance responses (SCRs), were successful. Most importantly, conditioned responding was renewed on all measures in the ABA condition, but not in the AAA condition. Differential renewal (i.e., larger renewal for CS + than for CS-) was only observed for US expectancy ratings.Limitations: The return of conditioned responses was non-differential for FPS and SCR.Conclusions: The current set-up enables investigation of fear renewal using an audiovisual US. Future studies can utilize this paradigm to investigate interventions that aim to reduce fear renewal by modifying the US memory, such as Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing and imagery rescripting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]