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Primary school children frequently use digital devices, which can be infected by computer viruses. In this mixed methods paper with two studies (N = 278 + 114), we examined 8-year-olds' preconceptions about computer viruses and protection against them; how to teach these children about said topics using three different, 30-min-long, content-equivalent lessons; and what knowledge the children can acquire. We found that participants had limited prior knowledge of computer viruses and almost no knowledge about protection against them. However, they rarely had misconceptions. They learnt, and retained over a month, key general points and a few specific points about this domain. Acquired knowledge was still somewhat patchy, most likely represented in 'pieces' rather than as complex, theory-like chunks. Nevertheless, all three approaches produced notable learning gains (d > 1.78). A lesson organized around a narrative 5-min video and six < 1 min video snippets was the most effective: compared to a lesson organized around two 5-min videos (d = 0.89) and a teacher-led lesson without videos (d = 0.54). The findings are consistent with contemporary instructional design theories and 'knowledge in pieces' conceptual change frameworks. They imply that the topic of computer viruses should be included in second-graders' curricula. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is increased interest in augmenting multimedia instructional materials to elevate learners’ positive affective-motivational states in order to improve learning. However, these efforts have only been partly successful and mediational effects of positive affective-motivational states have not always been established. In this study, university students ( N = 65) from the Czech Republic, a country where beer brewing is a source of national pride, were informed that they would either study how to brew beer (high intrinsic motivation condition) or how to prepare a citrate substrate (low intrinsic motivation condition). The 90-min simulation environment used for learning was about beer brewing in both cases, with superficial changes to instructions and graphics to disguise the topic manipulation. Generalized positive affect, overall enjoyment, flow, and learning involvement were higher in the beer brewing condition (Cohen’s d = 0.44–0.87) as were learning gains when measured immediately (retention: d = 0.48; transfer: d = 0.46) and a month later (retention: d = 0.66; transfer: d = 0.62). However, only learning involvement and flow positively mediated the influence of the topic manipulation on immediate learning outcomes; there were no mediation effects on delayed learning outcomes after co-varying out immediate learning. The findings corroborate results from extant studies on the importance of topic interest in learning from instructional texts. They also indicate that affective-motivational mediation is one, but not the only, mechanism by which topic-based intrinsic motivation manipulations influence learning and that induced positive affective-motivational states can be differentially related or unrelated to learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Composing instructional texts in multimedia learning materials in a conversational style rather than a formal style can facilitate learning. We investigated whether a specific language/cultural background could present a boundary condition for this effect. In four experiments with a Czech sample ( N = 278), we replicated a seminal experiment conducted on a US sample (with a short animation on the topic of lightning formation), which demonstrated a large effect size in favor of the instructional texts in the conversational style. In our four experiments, we varied between two types of audiences (a college and a high school audience) and two types of short animations (the original one and a complementary one). Instructional texts in a conversational style brought no overall advantage for the Czech audience (η p 2 = .00; the high school audience: d = 0.48, 0.22; the college audience: d = −0.45, −0.04). Twenty-nine percent of participants who received the conversational instructional texts expressed explicit reservations regarding the style of the language. In the fifth supplementary experiment, Czech participants ( N = 138) had to rate preferences on computer tutor’s printed statements. Direct rather than polite statements were preferred. Limited benefits of conversational/polite instructional texts for Czech learners are probably related to the generally more formal approach to education in the Czech Republic compared to the US schooling system. We also failed to find a link between several affective variables and learning outcomes; with the exception of a relationship of generalized positive affect, levels of flow and perceived difficulty to some of the learning outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effectivity of learning by playing serious games is increasingly subject to research, but information about how these games should actually be used in classes is limited. In this explorative study with between-subject design ( N = 166; high school students), we investigated the effectivity of playing two different micro-games in two different ways. After an expository lecture, either students played a game individually at computers (“individual play”), or the teacher played it, while showing it to the class on a projector and prompting the students on how to proceed with the game (“collective play”). Results indicated that the two modes of play were nearly comparable as concerns immediate and one month delayed learning gains, as well as subjective evaluation of educational experience. There were only two notable differences. First, immediate test scores for factual questions, but not transfer questions, for one of the games were higher for the individual play (medium effect size). Second, this difference was accompanied by a higher enjoyment in the better performing group (small to medium effect size). The results support the idea that collective play, which is easier to implement in schools, is a method that should be considered in educational design and future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Serious games are supposed to instigate engagement and, in turn, improve learning. High engagement is frequently connected with a positive affective state and a high flow state. However, the alleged link between a learner’s affective state, his/her flow state and learning outcomes has not been investigated in detail in the context of serious games. Even less information is available on how serious games may influence markers of physiological arousal. To fill this gap, participants of this exploratory study ( N = 171) played one of the six different serious game-based treatments, while we measured their affect, flow, cortisol secretion and learning achievement. The treatments were supposed to generate different levels of engagement and cortisol responses, because some of them were designed for a single user, while others were team-based, featuring so-called social-evaluative threat (ST) components. Our results revealed that flow was positively related to positive affect and negatively to negative affect. While flow and positive affect were related to learning gains, almost no relationship between either of these three variables and cortisol levels was found. Negative affect and cortisol were elevated in social interaction anxious males in team-based conditions. This study contributes to the limited body of research on the relationship between engagement and learning in serious games. We provide new perspectives on the relationships between flow, positive/negative affect and cortisol. Our findings highlight the fact that team-based serious games with ST components may have adverse effects on learners, particularly males, with high social interaction anxiety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The personalization principle, one of the design principles of multimedia learning, states that people learn better from multimedia presentations when instructions are in a conversational style rather than a formal style, possibly due to learners' increased interest. This principle was shown to be robust in short interventions that could be completed within minutes or a few dozen minutes; however, complex digital simulations and games that support the acquisition of complex mental models usually take longer to complete. In this study, we investigate the personalization principle in a new context: in an interactive simulation on the topic of beer brewing, which lasts 2–3 h. Instructions were presented in the Czech language, either in a personalized style, where learners were addressed conversationally by “their grandpa, an owner of the family brewery,” or in a non-personalized, more formal style without the grandpa. In Experiment 1, 26 college students, who interacted with both simulation versions, expressed on average a preference for the personalized version of the simulation. However, some of them worried that personalization could distract them. In Experiment 2 with a between-subject design, the knowledge of 75 predominantly college students was tested by means of retention and transfer tests immediately after completing the simulation and also a month later. Contrary to most previous works, our results showed no difference between the personalized and non-personalized groups in learning achievement, despite the fact that learners who received the personalized treatment voluntarily spent about 20% more time on the simulation. We also applied various measures of the learner's affective state, including Flow Short Scale and PANAS, but – again – no between-group differences were observed. These results indicate that personalization is not always beneficial to learning, which raises important questions for future research. Additional findings suggest that the simulation, no matter the treatment type, was most beneficial to learners with high mathematical abilities and who play computer games frequently, and also to those who liked the simulation more. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The ability to acquire, remember and use information about locations of objects in one’s proximal surrounding is a fundamental aspect of human spatial cognition. In this paper, we present a computational model of this ability. The model provides a possible explanation of contradictory results from experimental psychology related to this ability, namely explanation of why some experiments have reproduced the so-called “disorientation effect” while others have failed to do so. Additionally, in contrast to other computational models of various aspects of spatial cognition, our model is integrated within an intelligent virtual agent. Thus, on a more general level, this paper also demonstrates that it is possible to use intelligent virtual agents as a powerful research tool in computational cognitive sciences. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Curricular schooling can benefit from the usage of educational computer games, but it is difficult to integrate them in the formal schooling system. Here, we investigate one possible approach to this integration, which capitalizes on using a micro-game that can be played with a teacher’s guidance as a supplement after a traditional expository lecture followed by a debriefing. The game’s purpose is to reinforce and integrate part of the knowledge learnt during the lecture. We investigated feasibility of this approach in a quasi-experimental study in 70 min long seminars on the topic of animal learning at 5 classes at 4 different high-schools in the Czech Republic. Each class was divided to two groups randomly. After an expository lecture, the game group played a game called Orbis Pictus Bestialis while the control group received an extra lecture that used media-rich materials. The time allotment was the same in both groups. We investigated the immediate and one month delayed effects of the game on students’ knowledge reinforced and integrated by the game as well as on knowledge learnt during the expository lecture but not strengthened by the game. We also investigated students’ overall appeal towards the seminar and its perceived educational value. Data from 100 students were analysed. The results showed that a) the game-playing is comparable to the traditional form of teaching concerning immediate knowledge gains and has a significant medium positive effect size regarding retention, b) the game-playing is not detrimental to information transmitted in the expository lecture but not strengthened by the game, c) perceived educational value and the overall appeal were high in the game group, nevertheless the perceived educational value was slightly lower in the game group comparing to the traditional group. Our results suggest that the proposed approach of harnessing educational computer games at high-schools is promising. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

It is widely agreed that the traditional process of schooling can benefit from the usage of computers as supportive tools. Of various approaches using computers in education over the last decade, e-learning and edutainment have become the most prominent. Recently, a number of authors have criticised these approaches arguing that they conserve traditional ‘drill and practice’ behaviouristic methods of teaching instead of enhancing and augmenting them. It has been proposed that a ‘paradigm shift’ is needed and that this shift may come through utilizing all the advantages of full-fledged video games, so-called digital game-based learning (DGBL). However, several case studies reported serious problems with the DGBL. Among the most notable issues are the lack of acceptance of games as an educational tool, problems with integration of games into formal schooling environments, and the so-called transfer problem, which is the problem of the inherent tension between game play and learning objectives, the tension that mitigates the ability of students to transfer knowledge gained in the video game to the real-world context. Here, we present a framework for an augmented learning environment (ALE), which verbalises one way of how these problems can be challenged. The ALE framework has been constructed based on our experience with the educational game, Europe 2045, which we developed and which has been implemented in a number of secondary schools in the Czech Republic during 2008. The key feature of this game is that it combines principles of on-line multi-player computer games with social, role-playing games. The evaluation which we present in this paper indicates the successful integration of the game and its acceptance by teachers and students. The ALE framework isolates key principles of the game contributing to this success, abstracts them into theoretical entities we call action-based spaces and causal and grounding links, and condenses them in a coherent methodological structure, which paves the way for further exploitation of the DGBL by educational game researchers and designers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Existing studies confirm that some video games can change players' attitudes. However, since we do not know the specific elements responsible for attitude change, the potential of video games to achieve desired educational or behavioural outcomes often remains unfulfilled. Objectives: To fill the research gap, our study examined whether the perspective‐taking game mechanic in the serious game Czechoslovakia 38–89: Borderlands, which had previously been shown to affect attitudes, would have the same effect on another sample of players with different characteristics. Methods: We have assessed the effect of a historical video game using a perspective‐taking mechanic on players' explicit and implicit attitudes. Explicit attitude changes were measured at a general level, meaning a broad evaluation of a depicted historical event, and at a specific level, meaning a more detailed evaluation of specific aspects of the event. Simultaneously, we measured the effect of players' perceived attitude importance on attitude change. The study used a sample of 137 young adults. Results and Conclusions: This study's results indicate a significant pretest‐posttest explicit attitude change on the general level and on a specific level in comparison to the control group. Perspective‐taking game mechanics is particularly important for explicit attitude change. No change was found in implicit attitudes. The effect of the perceived attitude importance on attitude change was not confirmed. Takeaways: As one of the first to focus on the effects of specific game mechanics on attitudes, this study confirmed that perspective‐taking has stable, short‐term effects on attitude change even across different research samples. Lay Description: What is currently known about the subject matter: It is unclear why some video games can change players' attitudes while others do not.Several studies confirm video games' effect on explicit, but not on implicit, attitudes.Research on the effects of game mechanics on attitude changes is in its infancy.Very few studies focus on what role player characteristics play in their attitude changes. What our paper adds to this: Perspective‐taking as game mechanics changes explicit attitudes across populations.Perceived importance of players' attitudes towards topics not necessarily affects attitude changes.We show that only some facets of attitudes are influenced by the video game. Implications of study findings for practitioners: Particular game mechanics seem to be essential for attitude changes in players.Attitude importance and other player characteristics need further research in the video game context.DIF‐C analysis can provide more detailed information on changes in more complex explicit attitude concepts.Video games can affect the way we interpret the world around us. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little is known about the instructional effects of narrative framing elements in child learning games. In this study, second and third graders (Mage = 8.24) played one of two versions of a successful, commercial mathematical learning game at home for 2 weeks (N = 95; between‐subject design). The versions differed in the presence/absence of a background story conveyed through comic cutscenes at the beginning and the end of the game. Results showed that children played the game intensively in both conditions: despite not being forced to do so. Plus, they also learned from the game. As expected, children assigned to the cutscenes condition interfaced with the cutscenes. However, no between‐group difference was detected in pre‐post learning gains, parent‐reported engagement, self‐reported enjoyment, time spent with the game and the number of solved in‐game tasks (all |ds| < 0.29). Altogether, no advantage or disadvantage from the narrative comic cutscenes was revealed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are insufficientsuitable methodsfor assessing pupils’ social competence in the Czech Republic. The study aims to verify the psychometric properties of the instrument called The Walker-McConnell Scale of Social Competence and School Adjustment and initiate the process of adapting it to the Czech environment. The instrument is intended for teachers (or other teaching staff) who record their observations of the frequency of pupils’ given manifestations of social behaviour. The scale was answered by 15 class teachers and 15 teaching assistants who completed it for 307 pupils attending grades 1 to 5 from 15 different classes, with one class teacher and one teaching assistant from each class. Inter-rater agreement and confirmatory factor analysis were computed, revealing a low fit of the original instrument to the data. For that reason, the original version was modified, and a reduced version of the scale was created while preserving the original subscales. A limitation of the study is the fact that the full validation of the instrument was not conducted. The subsequent step in the validation process is verifying the instrument’s validity by another diagnostic method. The instrument is intended for use in school counselling practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The impairment of cognitive functions represents a characteristic manifestation in schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders, together with positive and negative symptoms. Cognitive symptoms offer very useful methodological approach for comparative studies in schizophrenia research. Both animal models of schizophrenia and schizophrenia patients have demonstrated behavioral changes in several spatial navigation tasks; assessment of spatial cognition can be therefore applied in comparative studies. To demonstrate the deficit of spatial cognition in schizophrenia, and to test the validity of pharmacological animal models of schizophrenia, we designed two virtual navigation tasks inspired by previous animal research: the virtual Morris water maze and the virtual Carousel maze. Both virtual tests consisting of four phases have been tested in a group of 30 first episode schizophrenia patients and a group of healthy volunteers matched for age, sex and education. In both tests, subjects were required to navigate towards several hidden goal positions placed on the floor of an enclosed stable arena or a rotating arena. Data obtained using these virtual tests show a decline in the cognitive performance of schizophrenia patients in comparison to matched healthy volunteers. Our findings thus support the validity of the animal model of cognitive deficit in schizophrenia and the presence of measurable impairment of cognitive functions in first episode schizophrenia patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Description It has been demonstrated that operant behavior can be controlled by spatial stimuli. In one of our experiment, rats were conditioned to press a lever for reward when a moving object was passing through a particular region of the experimental room (unpublished data). Although the stimulus was changing smoothly, the transitions between rewarded and non-rewarded condition were sudden. Consequently the animals anticipated the arrival to the rewarded zone by responding in its vicinity. We developed a reinforcement learning model to simulate this anticipatory behavior and to study its spatial and temporal components. An output neuron integrated inputs from four classes of sensory neurons: (1) neurons detecting the position of the object, (2) neurons indicating the time elapsed since the last reward and (3) since the last operant response, and (4) a neuron signaling the presence/ absence of the reward. While the output neuron was a leaky-integrator with a binary activation function, a manner for sending a motor signal to press the lever, the sensory neurons were simple nodes lacking the time dynamic component that signaled the presence of a stimulus in their receptive field in a rate-coded manner. The synapses between the sensory neurons and the output neuron were modified according to a rule based on the Rescorla-Wagner rule. The overall model resembles the spectral-timing model of Grossberg and Schmajuk extended to the spatial domain. Depending on the set up of learning parameters related to the different classes of sensory neurons, the network can learn the spatial and/or temporal features of the task resulting in spatial and/or temporal anticipation of the reward. The network well approximates data observed in real animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many contemporary computer games, notably action and role-playing games, represent an interesting class of navigation-intensive dynamic real-time simulations inhabited by autonomous intelligent virtual agents (IVAs). Although higher level reasoning of IVAs in these domains seems suited for action planning, planning is not widely adopted in existing games and similar applications. Moreover, statistically rigorous study measuring performance of planners in decision making in a game-like domain is missing. Here, five classical planners were connected to the virtual environment of Unreal Development Kit along with a planner for delete-free domains (only positive preconditions and positive effects). Performance of IVAs employing those planners and IVAs with reactive architecture was measured on a class of game-inspired test environments of various sizes and under different levels of external interference. The analysis has shown that planning agents outperform reactive agents if (i) the size of the problem is small or if (b) the environment changes are either hostile to the agent or infrequent. In delete-free domains, specialized approaches are inferior to classical planners because the lower expressivity of delete-free domains results in lower plan quality. These results can help to determine when planning is advantageous in games and for IVAs control in other dynamic real-time environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

University students often employ generative artificial intelligence tools such as ChatGPT in resolution of ill-defined problem-solving tasks. However, the experimental evidence about effects of ChatGPT on complex problem-solving performance is still missing. In this preregistered experiment, the impact of ChatGPT on performance in a complex creative problem-solving task was investigated in 77 university students solving a task with ChatGPT in comparison to 68 students solving a task without it. ChatGPT use significantly improved self-efficacy for task resolution (d = 0.65) and enhanced the quality (d = 0.69), elaboration (d = 0.61), and originality (d = 0.55) of solutions. Moreover, participants with ChatGPT assistance perceived task as easier (d = 0.56) and requiring less mental effort (d = 0.58). However, use of ChatGPT did not make task resolution more interesting (d = 0.08), and the impact of ChatGPT on metacognitive monitoring accuracy was unclear. Although there were no significant differences in absolute accuracy between students solving the task with and without the assistance of ChatGPT, the absence of correlation between self-evaluation judgments and performance suggests that participants struggled to calibrate their self-evaluations when using ChatGPT. Notably, the perceived usefulness of ChatGPT appeared to inform self-evaluation judgments, resulting in higher inaccuracy. The implications for hybrid human-AI regulation (HHAIR) theory are discussed. To regulate effectively, students using AI tools should focus on valid metacognitive cues instead of the perceived ease of ChatGPT-assisted problem-solving. • ChatGPT improved self-efficacy and enhanced the quality, elaboration, and originality of solutions. • Task resolution with ChatGPT was perceived as easier and requiring less mental effort. • ChatGPT did not make task resolution more interesting, and its impact on self-evaluation accuracy was unclear. • It is important to consider various heuristic cues in understanding metacognitive monitoring with ChatGPT. • Perceived usefulness of ChatGPT was associated with higher overestimation of the quality and originality of answers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this empirical study was to investigate the practice of teaching assistants in supporting the social inclusion of pupils with ASD attending mainstream schools. Moreover, the study focused on the question of teaching assistants’ job readiness and the adequacy of the methodological guidance provided to them by professionals. In-depth interviews were conducted between March and July 2021 with ten teaching assistants from different schools located in the Czech Republic. Thematic analysis was performed on the basis of the data obtained from the interviews. The findings of the study suggest that teaching assistants play a crucial role in the social inclusion of pupils with ASD attending mainstream schools. The study indicates that practical knowledge and training courses are considered to be the main source of knowledge according to the teaching assistants, whereas vocational training is seen as a secondary source of information. Additionally, teaching assistants find the methodological guidance beneficial and functional. Expanding educational opportunities for teaching assistants focused on specific techniques and practices for the social inclusion of pupils with ASD attending mainstream schools seems to be a useful future direction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates a video game's effects on implicit and explicit attitudes towards depicted historical events in the short‐ and long‐term on a sample of 148 young adults. We used, as an intervention tool, a serious game Czechoslovakia 38–89: Borderlands that deals with the expulsion of the Sudeten Germans from the former Czechoslovakia after the WWII. Results showed more negative pretest‐posttest explicit attitude changes towards the expulsion on a general level (d = −0.34) and a specific level (d = −0.53) compared to the control group. Over the long‐term, group differences in attitude change remained significant for the specific level (d = −0.44), but not for general one (d = −0.16). Exploratory analysis on the item level indicated that especially attitudes towards the expulsion's (un)fairness were affected by the game. However, no significant changes were found in implicit attitudes in the experimental group. This study is the first of such scale to empirically investigate video games' effects on a society's historical awareness. Lay Description: What is currently known about the subject matter: No studies address video games' long‐term effects on both explicit and implicit attitudes.The research of video games' effects on short‐ and long‐term attitudes is generally limited.Video games can change short‐term explicit attitudes under certain circumstances.So far, the effect of video games on implicit attitudes has not been confirmed.There are no studies dealing with the effect of historical video games on attitudes. What our paper adds to this: The study is the first to combine long‐term explicit and implicit attitude measurements related to games.Our video game intervention affected explicit attitudes over the short term and partly over the long term.We have not confirmed the effect of our video game intervention on implicit attitude change.Based on our results, historical video games can affect short‐ and long‐term explicit attitudes. The implications of study findings for practitioners: Our study confirms that perspective‐taking can change players' explicit attitudes.We demonstrate that exploratory DIF‐C analysis can provide deeper understanding of the explicit attitude changes on the item level.Our results confirm that video games can affect a society's historical awareness.Our results suggest video games have an important role in our understanding of historical and social realities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The instructional effects of customization features in child learning games have rarely been examined. This value‐added study addresses the existing gap with regards to user‐initiated cosmetic customization of environment elements (i.e., non‐avatar customization). Participants (N = 143; Mage = 9.41) studied a biological topic for about 20 min: either using the experimental version of a learning game with customization features, or from a control version without them. Null results were found as concerns between‐group differences: both for motivation‐related variables and learning outcome measures. These findings indicate that user‐initiated cosmetic customization features can be omitted by game designers, especially in settings where children are assigned specific instructional materials from which to study. Lay Description: What is already known: User‐initiated cosmetic customization (the term user‐initiated is afterwards left out of the text for brevity) refers to making choices about a game's visual or audio attributes without directly affecting the content of gameplay itself.Studies with non‐child learners showed that a sub‐type of cosmetic customization referred to as avatar customization (i.e., customization of learners' game characters) can be potentially beneficial for learning.The instructional efficiency of other sub‐types of cosmetic customization (i.e., customization of other elements, such as environmental ones) in game‐based learning for children is less clear. What this paper adds: Children (Grades 3–4) prefer a game with a cosmetically customizable environment over its non‐customizable counterpart: but only when they can contrast these two versions (not when they cannot contrast them).Children enjoy learning and learn equally from customizable and non‐customizable games. Implications for practice: Game‐based learning with cosmetic customization features of game's environment can be used for learning without risk of harming learning outcomes.However, when children's autonomy in choosing instructional materials is restricted, there is little need to invest in the cosmetic customization of a game's environment elements.Cosmetic customization of a game's environment elements may play a more notable role when children are able to choose learning materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study investigates affective‐motivational, attention, and learning effects of unexplored emotional design manipulation: Contextual animation (animation of contextual elements) in multimedia learning game (MLGs) for children. Participants (N = 134; Mage = 9.25; Grades 3 and 4) learned either from an experimental version of the MLG with a high amount of contextual animation or from an identical MLG with no contextual animation (control). Children strongly preferred (χ2 = 87.04, p <.001) and found the experimental version more attractive (p <.001, d = −1.11). No significant differences in overall enjoyment and learning outcomes were found. Attention differences, measured by dwell times and fixation durations, were small and reached only borderline significance (p =.035; d = −0.39). The implication is that contextual animation in MLG for children increases such instructional materials' attractiveness without compromising cognitive processes needed for learning; however, it does not lead to their higher instructional efficiency. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Contextual animation is frequently used in multimedia learning games (MLGs) for children.Contextual animation is understood to be non‐expository picture motion, which can be added to already existing representational pictures that provide context for target instruction.It is not known whether or not contextual animation, which embellishes already existing representational contextual pictures, harms learning for children in the case of MLGs. What this paper adds: Children (Grades 3 and 4) strongly prefer the game with added contextual animation compared to the game without it.No between‐group differences in overall learning enjoyment and learning outcomes were found.Small attention‐allocation effects of borderline significance were detected. Implications for practice Adding contextual animation (i.e., added non‐expository picture motion) to multimedia learning games for children will increase the attractiveness of the materials and will not hamper learning. Investment into the production of costly contextual animation may be worthwhile in the case of instructional games intended for uncontrolled settings (e.g., at home or during leisure time). In formal contexts (e.g., school), it is less clear whether investment into contextual animation is needed, since children are extraneously motivated to learn and animation does not appear to enhance learning outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We explored whether problem‐solving interactivity within an instructional game fosters learning for children aged 8–10 years. Participants (N = 139) studied a biological topic either through a game‐based learning environment (in which they solved assigned problems by interacting with a plant model) or from a standard learning environment (in which they observed how the problems were solved in an animation) (i.e., between‐subject design). The treatments were equal with regard to learning content and guidance. No between‐group differences in learning outcomes were detected (comprehension: d = 0.16; transfer: d = −0.01). Self‐rating of enjoyment tended to be higher in the game group (d = 0.32), and when the children could choose between the treatments in a free‐choice period, they strongly preferred the interactive game (87.5%). The results suggest that both the interactive and the non‐interactive treatments are useful, but their applicability may differ depending on the learning context (e.g., school vs. home). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anthropomorphizing graphical elements in multimedia learning materials improves learning outcomes. The reasons for enhanced learning are unclear. We extended a seminal anthropomorphism study in order to examine whether the effect of anthropomorphisms on learning outcomes, both immediate and delayed, is caused by the anthropomorphized elements' effects on attention distribution or by elevated positive affective–motivational states. The study had a partial 3 × 2 design (the materials' graphics: schematic vs. black‐and‐white anthropomorphisms vs. colourful anthropomorphisms × eye tracker: present vs. absent). The participants were university students (N = 181). Unexpectedly, we found no significant effect of anthropomorphisms on learning outcomes. Anthropomorphisms significantly affected attention distribution during initial fixations but not overall. Modest effect on enjoyment was found, but no such effect was detected as concerns flow and generalized positive affect. We also found that the eye tracker's mere presence had slight adverse effects on learners, but these effects did not compromise learning. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic Anthropomorphizing graphical elements in multimedia learning materials (e.g., by adding eyes) generally enhances learning.This could be due to increased motivation or due to effects of the anthropomorphisms on attention distribution.Only one study has used eye tracking to test attention distribution effects of the anthropomorphisms in multimedia learning materials. What this paper adds We have extended a seminal anthropomorphism study by using an eye tracker.Unexpectedly, we found no effect of anthropomorphisms on learning outcomes and, with one exception, on motivational variables.Anthropomorphisms significantly affected attention distribution during initial fixations but not overall. The eye tracker's mere presence had slight adverse effects on learners (though these effects did not compromise learning). Implications for practice Anthropomorphisms in multimedia learning are not universally beneficial, but they do not seem to harm learning.The effects of anthropomorphisms on overall attention distribution (if they really exist) may be harder to detect than one would intuitively assume.Researchers should consider possible adverse effects from the very presence of the eye tracker in studies with motivational outcome variables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little is known about what design elements in digital learning games enhance learning; especially in the case of child audiences. This study examines the effects of a learning game's visual design on perceived attractiveness and learning outcomes. We developed two visual designs for the game: one with supposedly high esthetic value and another with a low esthetic value. Participants (children between 9 and 11 years of age, N = 53) were randomly divided into two groups. Each group interacted with their assigned version for about 20 minutes and then evaluated its visual attractiveness without knowing about the other version. Then, they evaluated the attractiveness of the complementary version. As the next step, they evaluated both versions side‐by‐side. During the free‐choice period, children could continue playing one of the game versions or a different game. They clearly preferred the high esthetic version in evaluations (d > 0.86) and in the free‐choice period (62% preferred the high esthetic version of the target game), but this did not improve their learning outcomes (comprehension: d = –0.59; transfer: d = –0.16). Possible explanations of this effect are discussed in terms of cognitive load theory and cognitive‐affective theory of learning from media. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emotional design approaches tend to be instructionally effective in the case of higher education learners. However, empirical evidence on the effectiveness of emotional design for children is limited. Contextual animation is one way that emotional design can be realized. Contextual animation refers to the non-expository animation of context-providing representational pictures. This study examines the effects of contextual animation on learning outcomes and situational interest in the case of pre-adolescents. Participants included 50 children 9–11 year of age recruited from all parts of the Czech Republic. Participants studied exponential growth and public opinion polls from two, 3-min-long, narrated videos; one included contextual animation and the other did not (counterbalanced within-subject design with randomization). Each child participated separately in one online session with a research administrator. Although animated videos triggered interest (d = 0.18, 0.36), null results were found both as regards learning outcomes and maintained situational interest. This study adds to a small body of literature pointing at limited effects of emotional design approaches on pre-adolescents. Additional studies with young audiences and using other forms of emotional design would be a welcome addition to the literature. • Emotional design tends to be instructionally effective in the case of adults. • Less is known about the effects of emotional design in the case of children. • Contextual animation is one way that emotional design can be realized. • Here, we show no effect of contextual animation on learning: for 9–11-year-olds. • Emotional design increasingly appears to have limited benefits overall for children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The first meta-analysis focused on narrative video games and changes in attitudes. • Narrative video games seem to affect players' attitudes. • Playing video games leads to changes in both explicit and implicit attitudes. • Our results also reveal several moderating effects, but the evidence is fragmented. • Findings suggest that video games shape how we think about the events they depict. Video games are increasingly portraying many topics that we face in our everyday lives. Yet we have only limited evidence about the way narrative games affect how we think about the topics they depict; in other words, about the link between these games and attitude change. Therefore, we conducted a meta-analysis of video games' effect on attitudinal change. The findings suggest that narrative video games affect players' attitudes towards the topics depicted in games. This effect was present in studies focused on changes in both implicit (g = 0.36, k = 18) and explicit attitudes (g = 0.24, k = 101). Longer intervention duration and game mechanics such as stereotyping and meaningful feedback resulted in larger implicit attitude change. Regarding the robustness of the underlying evidence, half of the included studies were judged to be at high risk of bias. On the other hand, the impact of publication bias in this literature was found to be negligible. Altogether, this meta-analysis provides evidence that video games shape how we think about topics they represent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives. The study assessed basic psychometric properties of Czech versions of the Big Five Inventory measuring five basic personality dimensions that differ with respect to number of items (BFI-44 and BFI-10). Subject and settings. BFI-44 and BFI-10 for self-report were administered to six groups of 6.292 participants ageing from 11 to 84 years. Hypothesis. Authors expected that Czech version of BFI would have good psychometric properties. Statistical analysis. Internal consistency of BFI-44 scales was estimated using Cronbach alpha coefficient, internal consistency of BFI-10 was estimated using Spearman-Brown coefficient. The test-retest stability for BFI-10 was estimated using Pearson's correlation coefficient. The structure of BFI-44 items was derived from Principal Component Factor Analysis with Varimax rotation. The correspondence between BFI-10 and BFI-44 was estimated using Pearson's correlation coefficient. Results. The BFI-44 scales showed adequate reliability, ranging from .65 to .83, Mdn = .73, across three samples of participants. The testretest stability of BFI-44 estimated over a two month period was satisfactory, r = .79. The testretest stability of BFI-10 estimated over a month period averaged to r = .69, the test-retest stability estimated over a two month period in another sample averaged to r = .66. An average factor loading of BFI-44 items on intended factors was .50. The BFI-10 scales captured 60% of the full BFI-44 variance after including an additional item for measuring agreeableness. Study limitation. The study did not test convergent validity of instruments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]