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Highlights: [•] Mycotoxins (AFB1, OTA, FBs, DON, ZON and T-2+HT-2 toxin) occurrence was evaluated on gluten-free products. [•] In this study the exposure of celiac patients to fumonisins and zearalenone was evaluated. [•] This study represents the first evaluation of celiac patient exposure to zearalenone. [•] The higher exposure values, for all the matrices and for both the selected mycotoxins, were for children age group. [•] In none of the cases studied, the exposure assessed for celiac patients to FBs and ZON exceeded the TDI values. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The influence of the durum wheat milling process (pre-cleaning, cleaning, hulling, different fineness milling steps) on the deoxynivalenol (DON) content was evaluated, by establishing its contamination distributed in the different products and byproducts (bran, shorts, flour, semolina, and pasta). In order to include also the DON distribution within the pasta manufacturing process, four samples of semolina were worked to obtain four different lots of dried pasta. The results obtained in this study show that, with respect to wheat grain (100%), a reduction of DON contamination of 30%, 66% and 63% in clean wheat, peeled wheat and semolina was observed respectively. On the other hand, an increase of DON contamination was observed in the byproducts, especially in the foliage waste and in the wheat bran fractions, which are intended for feed production. However, at the present time, there is no legal limit set for DON content in feed. As far as the second-stage processing is concerned, with respect to semolina (100%), the observed DON reduction in dry and cooked pasta was estimated 8% and 41% respectively. The overall process, from wheat grain to cooked pasta, leads to a mean DON contamination decrease of 78%. The outputs of this study, confirming the trend of previous works, are of crucial importance in order to early evaluate the safety of the finished products, consistently with their final destination, once the contamination of the raw material is established. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Three hundred samples of cocoa and chocolate-based products were randomly collected in South, Center and North Italy. One hundred and seventy nine, out of the 300 samples analyzed, were positive for ochratoxin A (OTA) contamination, representing 60% of the purchased products. All 40 cocoa samples showed OTA contamination, while grouping all the chocolate products the positive samples accounted for 53%. The mean OTA concentration levels for cocoa and chocolate products were well below the corresponding Italian legal limits. Teenagers’ male age group resulted as the highest consumers for cocoa powder (2.9 g per day), while the OTA highest weekly intake was reported for the younger age groups (0.10 and 0.38 ng/kg bw/week, for infant and children respectively). With respect to chocolate products, the highest daily consumption and the highest intake are reported for children (7.3 g and 0.57 ng/kg bw/week, respectively). As far as single chocolate products are concerned, the highest weekly intake is referred to the consumption of Easter chocolate eggs by the infant/children age group (0.10 ng/kg bw/week). The overall analysis of the exposure assessment suggests that the very low value of body weight for infant and children categories drives the exposure calculations. On the basis of the risk assessment carried out in this study, the exposure to OTA, due to the consumption of cocoa and chocolate products, is to be considered not a major concern. Therefore, the Italian Superior Council of Health considered the data arising from this study, adequate to repeal the existing Italian legal limits and to align national legislation with the EU provisions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites of fungal origin, the major mycotoxins of food concern are aflatoxins and ochratoxin A. Due to the wide range of matrices susceptible to mycotoxin contamination, the possible co-occurrence, and the very wide range of concentration, validated versatile multi-mycotoxin and multi-matrix methods are strongly requested. A reversed phase HPLC method for the simultaneous determination of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in baby foods and paprika was set up. Three bulk samples were prepared according to commercial availability, one for paprika and for baby foods, two different bulks were set, a corn based and a multi-cereal based baby food. A single-laboratory validation was performed, for each investigated level ten analyses were performed, relative standard deviations of repeatability (RSDr) and recovery factors were calculated; RSDr values ranged from 2% to 10% for AFB1 and from 3% to 10% for OTA, while the recovery factors ranged from 86% to 96% for AFB1 and from 77% to 96% for OTA. The checked compliance of the RSDr and recovery with the values reported in the current EU Regulations confirmed the fitting for purpose of the method. Limit of detection and LoQ values of the method were respectively 0.002 and 0.020μg/kg for AFB1 and 0.012 and 0.080μg/kg for OTA in baby foods; and 0.002 and 0.200μg/kg for AFB1 and 0.012 and 0.660μg/kg for OTA in paprika. The current method represents a good example of the possibility of a multi-mycotoxin and/or a multi-matrix analysis depending on the laboratory research or official control purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Sixty samples of cereals (20 of corn, 20 of barley, and 20 of wheat) and 55 samples of spices (14 of paprika, 12 of ginger, 14 of cumin, and 15 of pepper) purchased from popular markets of Rabat and Salé in Morocco were analyzed for mycotoxins. Cereals samples were all analyzed for ochratoxin A (OTA). The average levels of contamination were 1.08, 0.42, and 0.17μg/kg for corn, wheat, and barley, respectively. Samples of corn were also analyzed for zearalenone (ZEA) and fumonisin B1 (FB1) the average contaminations were 14 and 1930μg/kg, respectively. Co-occurrence of OTA, FB1, and ZEA was also checked. Spices samples were analyzed only for aflatoxins (AFs) and the average contaminations found for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) were 0.09, 0.63, 2.88 and 0.03μg/kg for black pepper, ginger, red paprika and cumin, respectively. The higher level of contamination was found in red paprika (9.68μg/kg). The present report is the first one ever drafted on the natural co-occurrence of OTA, FB1 and ZEA in cereals and on the occurrence of AFs in spices from Morocco. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The aim of this study was to develop a sampling procedure to quantify genetically-modified Round-up Ready (GM RR) soybeans in a lot. Seven lots (35 kg each) fortified with three different percentages of GM RR soybeans (4 lots at 1%, 2 lots at 10%, and 1 lot at 5%) were prepared. Four sampling procedures were carried out on each lot. Different numbers and sizes of increment samples were collected from the lots tested and prepared by homogenising the sample with water. Separate analyses were carried out using quantitative Real Time PCR of split aliquots. The sampling procedures that used ten increment samples provided the best results, in terms of precision and accuracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: A total of 267 wine samples including 19 dessert, 186 red, 11 rosé and 51 white produced mostly in the years 1997–2002 in Italian and Hungarian regions were analyzed for ochratoxin A (OTA) using inmunoaffinity column (IAC) clean-up and HPLC with fluorimetric detection. None of Hungarian wine samples were contaminated with this mycotoxin. For Italian red wines, 84% of the samples were positive for OTA ranged from 0.01 to 4.00 ng/mL. Furthermore, OTA was detected in 63% of dessert, in 56% of rosé and in 19% of white wine samples ranged from 0.01 to 1.64, from 0.01 to 1.04 and from 0.01 to 0.21 ng/mL, respectively. A study of OTA daily exposure assessment in Italian wines was also carried out outlining a quite low contribution to the overall daily intake. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In order to evaluate the possible presence of mycotoxins in airborne particulates, a micro-method by HPLC was performed for aflatoxins and ochratoxin A (OA) in dust samples. A total of 44 samples of airborne particulates were collected in three different workplaces in Tuscany (central Italy), where three of the most susceptible foodstuffs (cocoa, coffee and spices) are processed. Air samples were obtained through both area and personal samplings collected during the entire workshift. Whenever possible, workers’ sera were collected in order to check the biomarker of exposure for OA. Dust samples were contaminated at different levels, ranging from less than the limit of detection to 0.080 ng for aflatoxins and to 5.481 ng for OA. The wide range of toxin levels could be related to different causes, such as the distance between the worker and the stocked raw materials, the worker''s job, the exposure time and the amount of particulate matter sampled. Airborne levels of OA, and aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 were in the range 0.001–8.304, <0.002–0.038, <0.002–0.029, <0.002–0.036 and <0.014–0.131 ng/m3, respectively. OA levels in workers’ sera showed much higher results (0.94–3.28 ng OA/ml) than the mean level found in the Italian population, showing that inhalation in the workplace can be considered a route of exposure additional to the consumption of contaminated foodstuffs. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Both labelling and traceability of genetically modified organisms are current issues that are considered in trade and regulation. Currently, labelling of genetically modified foods containing detectable transgenic material is required by EU legislation. A proposed package of legislation would extend this labelling to foods without any traces of transgenics. These new legislations would also impose labelling and a traceability system based on documentation throughout the food and feed manufacture system. The regulatory issues of risk analysis and labelling are currently harmonised by Codex Alimentarius. The implementation and maintenance of the regulations necessitates sampling protocols and analytical methodologies that allow for accurate determination of the content of genetically modified organisms within a food and feed sample. Current methodologies for the analysis of genetically modified organisms are focused on either one of two targets, the transgenic DNA inserted- or the novel protein(s) expressed- in a genetically modified product. For most DNA-based detection methods, the polymerase chain reaction is employed. Items that need consideration in the use of DNA-based detection methods include the specificity, sensitivity, matrix effects, internal reference DNA, availability of external reference materials, hemizygosity versus homozygosity, extrachromosomal DNA, and international harmonisation. For most protein-based methods, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays with antibodies binding the novel protein are employed. Consideration should be given to the selection of the antigen bound by the antibody, accuracy, validation, and matrix effects. Currently, validation of detection methods for analysis of genetically modified organisms is taking place. In addition, new methodologies are developed, including the use of microarrays, mass spectrometry, and surface plasmon resonance. Challenges for GMO detection include the detection of transgenic material in materials with varying chromosome numbers. The existing and proposed regulatory EU requirements for traceability of genetically modified products fit within a broader tendency towards traceability of foods in general and, commercially, towards products that can be distinguished from each other. Traceability systems document the history of a product and may serve the purpose of both marketing and health protection. In this framework, segregation and identity preservation systems allow for the separation of genetically modified and non-modified products from “farm to fork”. Implementation of these systems comes with specific technical requirements for each particular step of the food processing chain. In addition, the feasibility of traceability systems depends on a number of factors, including unique identifiers for each genetically modified product, detection methods, permissible levels of contamination, and financial costs. In conclusion, progress has been achieved in the field of sampling, detection, and traceability of genetically modified products, while some issues remain to be solved. For success, much will depend on the threshold level for adventitious contamination set by legislation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: According to general consensus, the global climate is changing, which may also affect agricultural and livestock production. The potential impact of climate change on food security is a widely debated and investigated issue. Nonetheless, the specific impact on safety of food and feed for consumers has remained a less studied topic. This review therefore identifies the various food safety issues that are likely to be affected by changes in climate, particularly in Europe. Amongst the issues identified are mycotoxins formed on plant products in the field or during storage; residues of pesticides in plant products affected by changes in pest pressure; trace elements and/or heavy metals in plant products depending on changes in their abundance and availability in soils; polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in foods following changes in long-range atmospheric transport and deposition into the environment; marine biotoxins in seafood following production of phycotoxins by harmful algal blooms; and the presence of pathogenic bacteria in foods following more frequent extreme weather conditions, such as flooding and heat waves. Research topics that are amenable to further research are highlighted. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The need to obtain a representative sample deserves particular consideration since a wrong sampling plan can greatly affect the reliability of the measured levels of mycotoxins. This can even result in legal disputes and barriers to trade. Reported here is an holistic view for an ideal sampling plan, which is based on two consecutive steps: (i) To establish ‘why, where and when’ sampling has to be performed by assessing the purpose, the appropriate time and the site for collecting the samples; (ii) To establish ‘how’ to draw samples by assessing practical ad hoc guidelines, considering that, for bulk goods in particular, mycotoxins are not at all homogeneously distributed in a lot. So far, step 1 is not yet covered by specific guidelines while for step 2, European regulations establish the procedures for the sampling of bulk and retail products potentially contaminated by mycotoxins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]