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Prior research has shown that the home learning environment (HLE) is critical in the development of spatial skills and that various parental beliefs influence the HLE. However, a comprehensive analysis of the impact of different parental beliefs on the spatial HLE remains lacking, leaving unanswered questions about which specific parental beliefs are most influential and whether inducing a growth mindset can enhance the spatial HLE. To address these gaps, we conducted an online study with parents of 3- to 5-year-olds. We found that parents' growth mindset about their children's ability strongly predicted the spatial HLE after controlling for parents' motivational beliefs about their children, beliefs about their own ability, children's age, children's gender, and family SES. Further, reading an article about growth mindset led parents to choose more challenging spatial learning activities for their children. These findings highlight the critical role of parents' growth mindset in the spatial HLE. Crucially, these findings demonstrate that general growth mindset messages without specific suggestions for parental practices can influence parental behavior intentions. Further, these effects were also observed in the control domain of literacy, underscoring the broad relevance of the growth mindset in the HLE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Children's beliefs about the contribution of effort and ability to success and failure shape their decisions to persist or give up on challenging tasks, with consequences for their academic success. But how do children learn about the concept of "challenge"? Prior work has shown that parents' verbal responses to success and failure shape children's motivational beliefs. In this study, we explore another type of talk—parent and child talk about difficulty—which could contribute to children's motivational beliefs. We performed secondary analyses of two observational studies of parent–child interactions in the United States (Boston and Philadelphia) from age 3 to fourth grade (Study 1, 51% girls, 65.5% White, at least 43.2% below Federal poverty line) and at first grade (Study 2, 54% girls, 72% White, family income-to-needs ratio M [SD] = 4.41 [2.95]) to identify talk about difficulty, characterize the content of those statements, and assess whether task context, child and parent gender, child age, and other parent motivational talk were associated with the quantity of child and parent difficulty talk. We found that many families did discuss difficulty, with variation among families. Parents and children tended to use general statements to talk about difficulty (e.g., "That was hard!"), and task context affected child and parent difficulty talk. In the NICHD-SECCYD dataset, mothers' highlighting how task features contributed to task difficulty was positively correlated with their process praise, suggesting that this talk could be motivationally relevant. Public Significance Statement: By examining parent–child interactions, we found that preschool and elementary-school-aged children and their parents talk about how "easy" and "hard" tasks are to complete. This type of talk varied across families and contexts, and occurred most often during goal-directed, challenging tasks. Further understanding when families talk about task difficulty and what messages they communicate is important to know how parents can best support children's approach toward mastering challenging tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this review, we propose that fiber arts – a wide array of practices that use string, yarn, and fabric to create functional and fine art textiles – present a novel avenue to both explore basic science questions about spatial skills and to design interventions that help children learn spatial skills. First, we outline how fiber arts are applicable to existing theoretical frameworks that aim to organize our understanding of spatial skills and highlight how fiber arts may be particularly relevant for understanding critically understudied non-rigid spatial skills. Next, we review the environmental factors that influence spatial skill development. In the third section of the paper, we review the literature on gender differences in spatial skill performance, as well as intervention approaches that have been taken to close gender gaps. Fourth, we outline how motivational features of fiber arts, specifically the roles of individual choice in goal-setting, and growth-mindset-consistent messages in fiber arts contexts, could contribute to spatial learning. Finally, we suggest several avenues for future research, including leveraging fiber arts materials and techniques to investigate non-rigid mental transformation skills, and designing gender-inclusive fiber-arts-based spatial skills interventions that maintain the motivationally relevant features of fiber arts practices and contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Child persistence did not differ after person and process praise. • Child persistence was higher after process praise than a control statement. • Child persistence did not differ after person and process "easy" feedback. • Child self-evaluations did not differ among any of the feedback conditions. • Effect of adult praise and easy feedback on children's persistence may be context-dependent. Praise is thought to affect children's responses to failure, yet other potentially impactful messages about effort have been rarely studied. We experimentally investigated the effects of praise and "easy" feedback after success on children's persistence and self-evaluations after failure. Children (N = 150; M age = 7.97 years, SD = 0.58) from the mid-Atlantic region of the United States (73 girls; 79% White) heard one of five types of feedback from an experimenter after success on online tangram puzzles: process praise ("You must have worked hard on that puzzle"), person praise ("You must be good at puzzles"), process-easy feedback ("It must have been easy to rotate and fit those pieces together"), person-easy feedback ("It must have been an easy puzzle for you"), or a control. Next, children failed to complete a harder tangram puzzle. Preregistered primary analyses revealed no differences in persistence and self-evaluation between person and process praise or between person-easy and process-easy feedback. Exploratory analyses showed that hearing process praise led to greater persistence after failure than the control condition (d =.61) and that process-easy feedback led to greater strategy generation than the control condition. The effects of adult feedback after success may be more context dependent than previously thought. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]