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This study is a companion paper to Baillié et al. in which we showed that a past episode of inward migration of Mimas could have created the Cassini Division. We here investigate the possible causes of this inward migration. We suggest two scenarios: one based on a past intense heating of Mimas, and another one on a past intense heating of Enceladus, which would have itself driven an inward migration of Mimas due to a mean-motion resonance. These two scenarios are challenged with numerical modelling of the orbital motion of the satellites, and energy budget, which are confronted to our present knowledge of the interior of Mimas and Enceladus. We show that a past hot Mimas requires an eccentricity of 0.22, while a past hot Enceladus would have needed an eccentricity of 0.25. While the scenario of a past hot Mimas preserves the stability of the mid-sized satellites of Saturn, it threatens Janus and Epimetheus and is inconsistent with the observations of impact basins at the surface of Mimas. However, a past hot Enceladus which would have almost fully melted could be consistent with its differentiated interior, but would probably not have preserved the stability of Tethys, given the high eccentricity required. Both of these scenarios would have challenged the stability of Aegaeon, Methone, Pallene, and Anthe, and implied that the Cassini Division would be younger than 10 Myr. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Planetary formation models are necessary to understand the characteristics of the planets that are the most likely to survive. Their dynamics, their composition and even the probability of their survival depend on the environment in which they form. We therefore investigate the most favorable locations for planetary embryos to accumulate in the protoplanetary disk: the planet traps. Aims. We study the formation of the protoplanetary disk by the collapse of a primordial molecular cloud, and how its evolution leads to the selection of specific types of planets. Methods. We use a hydrodynamical code that accounts for the dynamics, thermodynamics, geometry and composition of the disk to numerically model its evolution as it is fed by the infalling cloud material. As the mass accretion rate of the disk onto the star determines its growth, we can calculate the stellar characteristics by interpolating its radius, luminosity and temperature over the stellar mass from pre-calculated stellar evolution models. The density and midplane temperature of the disk then allow us to model the interactions between the disk and potential planets and determine their migration. Results. At the end of the collapse phase, when the disk reaches its maximum mass, it pursues its viscous spreading, similarly to the evolution from a minimum mass solar nebula (MMSN). In addition, we establish a timeline equivalence between the MMSN and a "collapse-formed disk" that would be older by about 2 Myr. Conclusions. We can save various types of planets from a fatal type-I inward migration: in particular, planetary embryos can avoid falling on the star by becoming trapped at the heat transition barriers and at most sublimation lines (except the silicates one). One of the novelties concerns the possible trapping of putative giant planets around a few astronomical units from the star around the end of the infall. Moreover, trapped planets may still follow the traps outward during the collapse phase and inward after it. Finally, this protoplanetary disk formation model shows the early possibilities of trapping planetary embryos at disk stages that are anterior by a few million years to the initial state of the MMSN approximation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Planet traps are necessary to prevent forming planets from falling onto their host star by type I inward migration. Surface mass density and temperature gradient irregularities favor the apparition of traps (planet accumulation region) and deserts (planet depletion zone). These features are found at the dust sublimation lines and heat transition barriers. Aims. We study how planets may remain trapped or escape these traps as they grow and as the disk evolves viscously with time. Methods. We numerically model the temporal viscous evolution of a protoplanetary disk by coupling its dynamics, thermodynamics, geometry, and composition. The resulting midplane density and temperature profiles allow the modeling of the interactions of this type of evolving disk with potential planets, even before the steady state is reached. Results. We follow the viscous evolution of a minimum mass solar nebula and compute the Lindblad and corotation torques that this type of disk would exert on potential planets of various masses that are located within the planetary formation region. We determine the position of planet traps and deserts in relationship with the sublimation lines, shadowed regions, and heat transition barriers. We notice that the planet mass affects the trapping potential of the mentioned structures through the saturation of the corotation torque. Planets that are a few tens of Earth masses can be trapped at the sublimation lines until they reach a certain mass while planets that are more massive than 100 M⊕ can only be trapped permanently at the heat transition barriers. They may also open gaps beyond 5 au and enter type II migration. Conclusions. Coupling a bimodal planetary migration model with a self-consistent evolved disk, we were able to distinguish several potential planet populations after five million years of evolution: two populations of giant planets that could stay trapped around 5.5 and 9 au and possibly open gaps, some super-Earths trapped around 5 and 7.5 au, and a population of close-in super-Earths, which are trapped inside 1 au. The traps that correspond to the last group could help to validate the in situ formation scenarios of the observed close-in super-Earths. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Planet traps and snow lines are structures that may promote planetary formation in protoplanetary disks. They are very sensitive to the disk density and temperature structure. It is therefore necessary to follow the time evolution of the disk thermal structure throughout its viscous spreading. Since the snowlines are thought to generate density and temperature bumps, it is important to take into account the disk opacity variations when the various dust elements are sublimated. Aims. We track the time evolution of planet traps and snowlines in a viscously evolving protoplanetary disk using an opacity table that accounts for the composition of the dust material. Methods. We coupled a dynamical and thermodynamical disk model with a temperature-dependent opacity table (that accounts for the sublimation of the main dust components) to investigate the formation and evolution of snowlines and planet traps during the first million years of disk evolution. Results. Starting from a minimum mass solar nebula, we find that the disk mid-plane temperature profile shows several plateaux (0.1-1 AU wide) at the different sublimation temperatures of the species that make up the dust. For water ice, the corresponding plateau can be larger than 1 AU, which means that this is a snow "region" rather than a snow "line". As a consequence, the surface density of solids in the snow region may increase gradually, not abruptly. Several planet traps and desert regions appear naturally as a result of abrupt local changes in the temperature and density profiles over the disk lifetime. These structures are mostly located at the edges of the temperature plateaux (surrounding the dust sublimation lines) and at the heat-transition barrier where the disk stellar heating and viscous heating are of the same magnitude (around 10 AU after 1 Myr). Conclusions. Several traps are identified: although a few appear to be transient, most of them slowly migrate along with the heattransition barrier or the dust sublimation lines. These planet traps may temporarily favor the growth of planetary cores. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We focus on the thermal and optical opposition effects of Saturn's C ring seen by Cassini CIRS (Composite InfraRed Spectrometer) at 15.7  |${\mu}$| m and ISS (Imaging Science Subsystem) at 0.6  |${\mu}$| m. The opposition surge is a brightness peak observed at low phase angle (α → 0°). Saturn rings' opposition surge was recently observed in reflected light and thermal infrared emission by Cassini. There is debate on whether the C ring's thermal opposition surge width is narrow (≲1°) or broad (≳30°). This surge is important because its width was used to define the scale of ring properties driving the thermal peak. We parametrize the CIRS and ISS phase curves with several morphological models to fit the surge shape. For five of the largest C ring's plateaus, we find that their thermal surge is 10 times wider than the optical surge and that the thermal surge width (∼4°) is neither narrow, nor broad. We compare radial differences between CIRS and ISS surge morphologies with the optical depth τ (from UVIS, UltraViolet Imaging Spectrograph) and water ice band depth (from VIMS, Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer) profiles. We find that: water ice band depths (microscopic ring signatures) and τ (macroscopic ring signatures) show respectively little and large contrasts between the background and the plateaus. The thermal surge amplitude and τ are correlated, and we found no band depth dependence, contrary to the optical surge amplitude, which shows no correlation with τ. These correlations suggest a macroscopic scale dominance in controlling the C ring's thermal opposition effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the 2014–2015 mutual events season, the Institut de Mécanique Céleste et de Calcul des Éphémérides (IMCCE), Paris, France, and the Sternberg Astronomical Institute (SAI), Moscow, Russia, led an international observation campaign to record ground-based photometric observations of Galilean moon mutual occultations and eclipses. We focused on processing the complete photometric observations data base to compute new accurate astrometric positions. We used our method to derive astrometric positions from the light curves of the events. We developed an accurate photometric model of mutual occultations and eclipses, while correcting for the satellite albedos, Hapke's light scattering law, the phase effect, and the limb darkening. We processed 609 light curves, and we compared the observed positions of the satellites with the theoretical positions from IMCCE NOE-5-2010-GAL satellite ephemerides and INPOP13c planetary ephemeris. The standard deviation after fitting the light curve in equatorial positions is ±24 mas, or 75 km at Jupiter. The rms (O−C) in equatorial positions is ±50 mas, or 150 km at Jupiter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]