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In this study, three-dimensional (3D), biodegradable, porous magnesium (Mg) alloy scaffolds were fabricated using the rapid casting method. The casting models were welded onto a wax rod to produce a casting tree using a stereolithography (SLA) machine with castable wax. The model has a high surface area and porosity. The pore size, strut thickness, and porosity of the 3D porous scaffolds are 1.5 mm, 0.45 mm, and 71.68%, respectively. The relative density and surface area-to-volume ratio are also 3.53 and 5.43, respectively. The pure phase of 45S5 bioglass (BG) nanomaterial was successfully synthesized using the sol–gel method. The 45S5 BG was characterized using transmission electron microscope (TEM), energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX), X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), differential thermal analysis (DTA), thermogravimetric (TG) and derivative thermogravimetry (DTG) analyses. To improve the bioactivity and control the degradation rate of Mg alloy scaffolds, the porous surface of the Mg scaffold was coated with 45S5 BG nanomaterials using the electrophoretic deposition (EPD) method. The in vitro degradation test was then performed using simulated body fluid (SBF) for 48 h. The in vitro degradation test results showed that the mass loss percentages of both samples approached each other after 12 h. The uncoated sample lost more mass than the coated sample after 24 and 48 h. The results showed that the coated scaffolds had better bioactivity and greater resistance to degradation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Artificial bone cements have widespread applications in orthopedic and dental surgeries. Nevertheless, there is a need to develop novel materials for artificial bone cements due to limitations like short-service life, weak interaction and attachment with living hard tissue, and the inability to facilitate bone regeneration of calcified tissues rather than replacing them. In the present research, a novel combination of lanthanum (La3+) ions doped dicalcium phosphate (DCP) (La-DCP) and 1.5–3.5 wt.% of graphene oxide (GO) doped La-DCP bone cement materials were successfully synthesized and reported for the first time. Acid/base interaction between La-β-tricalcium phosphate (La-βTCP) and monocalcium phosphate monohydrate (MCPM) in the presence of water was the basis for making the La-DCP cements. The synthesized cements were characterized using the XRD, FTIR, FESEM, UV–Vis and TGA techniques. Produced material had La-DCP as in the monetite phase, and La-DCP particles were formed in agglomerates of irregular shapes. The presence of GO enhanced the growth rate of monetite particles, significantly decreased the setting time of the La-DCP bone cement, enhanced mechanical properties and enhanced the adsorption capacity of La-DCP. In vitro studies showed that synthesized GO/La-DCP bone cements were biocompatible, and the proliferation and differentiation properties of human osteosarcoma (Saos-2) cells were significantly improved with the addition of GO. In summary, the synthesized GO/La-DCP bone cement materials, which exhibit good biocompatibility and mechanical properties, have the potential to be employed in bone defect healing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydroxyapatite (HA) particles with enhanced antibacterial properties can be prepared by integrating metal ions into the crystal structure of the nanoparticles. Cobalt and silicate ions containing HA (Co/Si-HA) with the formula Ca 10-x Co x (PO 4) 6-y (SiO 4) y (OH) 2 (x = 0.2, 0.6, and 1.0 and y = 0.5) was successfully synthesised by using microwave-assisted wet precipitation method. X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) techniques were used to characterise the synthesised nanoparticles. The results revealed that the incorporation of SiO 4 4− ions increased the lattice parameters and decreased the crystallite size of HA. However, the incorporation of Co2+ions led to the reduction of lattice parameters and the particle size of the SiHA nanoparticles. In vitro antibacterial activity of materials was evaluated using disk diffusion and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) protocols. The findings indicated that incorporating Co2+ ions into SiHA inhibited the growth of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). The cytotoxicity of materials evaluated using the Sarcoma osteogenic (Saos-2) cell line revealed that they were cytocompatible and exhibited no adverse side effects. The osteogenic differentiation of cells was confirmed by the significant increase in the alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity by incorporating Co2+/SiO 4 4− ions into the HA crystal structure. Our results show that the nanoparticles prepared in this study have a promising future in biomaterial-tissue engineering applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The major objective of the current review is to highlight the prime importance of bone cements particularly monetite cement as filler to treat various bone defects which may result due to osteoporosis, some accidents, some trauma disease or any other orthopedic surgical disorders. Previous studies showed that polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), calcium phosphate cements (CPCs), dicalcium phosphate (DCP) cement and acrylic polymer cements have been employed to improve the bone defects, but these materials have a certain issue of in-situ setting. To overcome these problems, concentration was swiftly diverted towards monetite cement which revealed better results. Therefore, in this review, more focus has been given to the monetite cement. In this work, a brief but very productive discussion has also been inducted about the various synthetic routes to synthesize monetite cement and its properties which will help the readers to get key information about the growing significance of monetite cement as a bone filler and its future use and importance. The main theme of this review is to highlight the tremendous achievements achieved in the monetite cementing materials and their further scope in the near future as to upgrade their properties and use in the biomedical field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Hydroxyapatite (HA) is a synthetic biomaterial resembling the composition of mammalian hard tissue and thus, it is widely employed as a bone graft material, hard tissue engineering scaffold and coating layer for metallic substrates. Biological apatite is non-stoichiometric in nature. It is composed of small crystals and characterized by poor crystallinity and relatively high solubility with respect to stoichiometric HA. Chemical compositions of these crystals consist of Ca, P and trace amounts of various ions, such as Mg2+, Zn2+, Sr2+, Ag+, Cl− and F− which are more prominent as dopants or adsorbed on the crystal surface. However, these ions play an important role in the metabolism of hard tissues. Synthetic HA is a stoichiometric material with a Ca/P ratio of 1.67, which lacks the presence of valuable trace ions regularly present in natural hard tissue. Thus, the structure of synthetic HA is partially incorporated by these ions to mimic the chemical composition of the biological apatite structure. Ionic substitutions have been planned as a tool to enhance the biological role of HA based materials. As single dopant frameworks have indicated great outcomes, it makes sense that various dopants can be utilized to further build the valuable impacts of each, within the constraints of the material stability of HA. This review is focused on co-ionic substitutions in HA system and their combined effects on related biomedical characteristics. Highlights • This review is focused on multi ionic substitutions in hydroxyapatite. • The effects on physiochemical, mechanical, biological, and anti-bacterial properties are summarized. • When multiple ions are doped into hydroxyapatite they alter the atomic structure synergistically. • Dopants cause changes in morphology, density, strength, solubility and ion release kinetics of hydroxyapatite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, bioactive glass nanoparticles (BG-NPs) doped with boron were synthesized and characterized to evaluate their effects on human dental pulp stem cells (hDPSCs). All synthesized BGs were nano-sized and amorphous in nature. They showed the expected characteristic functional groups and composition close to the designed ones by microstructural characterizations. Porositimetry analysis revealed that increase of boron in the BG composition caused a decrease in the specific surface area, average pore diameter and total pore volume of NPs. hDPSCs were isolated from third molar teeth of patients and were shown to have the characteristics of mesenchymal stem cells. Dose dependent cytotoxicity study of boron doped BG-NPs suggested that 6.25 mg/ml was the optimum concentration for cells. ALP activity tests and intracellular calcium measurements revealed enhanced early stage odontogenic differentiation of hDPSCs treated with 6.25 mg/ml of different BG groups. Immunocytochemical staining showed positive effect of boron doped BG-NPs on DSPP, osteopontin and collagen I markers expression of hDPSCs. Our results indicated that boron doped BG-NPs hold potential as biomaterial in regenerative dentistry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, novel graphene oxide -- incorporated silicate-doped nano-hydroxyapatite composites were prepared and their potential use for bone tissue engineering was investigated by developing an electrospun poly(ε-caprolactone) scaffold. Nanocomposite groups were synthesized to have two different ratios of graphene oxide (2 and 4 wt%) to evaluate the effect of graphene oxide incorporation and groups with different silicate-doped nano-hydroxyapatite content was prepared to investigate optimum concentrations of both silicate-doped nano-hydroxyapatite and graphene oxide. Three-dimensional poly(ε-caprolactone) scaffolds were prepared by wet electrospinning and reinforced with silicate-doped nano-hydroxyapatite/graphene oxide nanocomposite groups to improve bone regeneration potency. Microstructural and chemical characteristics of the scaffolds were investigated by X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscope and scanning electron microscopy techniques. Protein adsorption and desorption on material surfaces were studied using fetal bovine serum. Presence of graphene oxide in the scaffold, dramatically increased the protein adsorption with decreased desorption. In vitro biocompatibility studies were conducted using human osteosarcoma cell line (Saos-2). Electrospun scaffold group that was prepared with effective concentrations of silicate-doped nano-hydroxyapatite and graphene oxide particles (poly(ε-caprolactone) -- 10% silicate-doped nano-hydroxyapatite -- 4% graphene oxide) showed improved adhesion, spreading, proliferation and alkaline phosphatase activity compared to other scaffold groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this investigation, we have extracted biological hydroxyapatite (HA) containing magnesium, sodium, aluminium, zirconium and silicon ions from the chicken beaks. Raw chicken beaks were calcined at different temperatures after washing with boiled water and organic solvents. The calcined biological HA was characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transforms infrared (FTIR), Field emission electron microscopy (FESEM), X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy and Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The viability of Saos-2 cells treated with extracts of biological HA was higher than cells on tissue culture plates (TCPs) and synthetic HA, suggesting a good cytocompatibility of biological HA. Our research has successfully shown that the chicken beaks are a cheap source of biological HA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report here the effect of microwave power on the physicochemical and photocatalytic properties of nano-crystalline tin oxide (SnO 2 ) synthesized by using a continuous microwave flow synthesis (CMFS) process. The obtained nanoparticles (Nps) were characterized by using TEM, XRD, FTIR, BET, UV–vis and PL spectra. TEM characterizations revealed that the SnO 2 Nps were agglomerated spheroids. A red shift in energy bandgap (E g ) and a reduction in the photoluminescence (PL) peak intensity were observed on increasing the microwave power. Photocatalytic study confirmed that the synthesized SnO 2 Nps were efficient in degrading methylene blue (MB) dye. SnO 2 NPs with decreased E g have potential to be used in solar cell windows, opto-electronic (UV) devices, UV photo-detector and gas sensing applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Incorporation of Mg 2+ , Ni 2+ , and SiO 4 4 − ions into hydroxyapatite (HA) structure was successfully carried out by microwave assisted wet precipitation method to furnish Ca 10− x − y Mg x Ni y (PO 4 ) 6− z (SiO 4 ) z (OH) 2− z □ z . Incorporation of silicate ions into the HA structure led to the increase in HA lattice parameters, while incorporation of (Mg 2+ and Ni 2+ ) ions led to the reduction of lattice parameters and crystallite size of silicate doped HA. Optical analysis showed a distinct red-shift upon increase in Ni 2+ concentration. Dissolution of samples in simulated body fluid showed that the incorporation of Mg 2+ , Ni 2+ and SiO 4 4 − in HA structure resulted in considerable increase in the in vitro dissolution of HA. The prepared samples promoted exceptional in vitro apatite growth over 14 days with Ca/P ratio close to 1.67. The analysis of in vitro antibacterial activity against E. coli and P. aeruginosa revealed that the Ni 2+ containing samples possessed good antibacterial properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We have successfully used continuous microwave flow synthesis (CMFS) technique for the template free synthesis of mesoporous hydroxyapatite. The continuous microwave flow reactor consisted of a modified 2.45 GHz household microwave, peristaltic pumps and a Teflon coil. This cost effective and efficient system was exploited to produce semi-crystalline phase pure nano-sized hydroxyapatite. Effect of microwave power, retention time and the concentration of reactants on the phase purity, degree of crystallinity and surface area of the final product was studied in detail. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were used to study the phase purity and composition of the product, while transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was used to study the effect of process parameters on the morphology of hydroxyapatite. The TEM analysis confirmed the formation of spherical particles at low microwave power; however the morphology of the particles changed to mesoporous needle and rod-like structure upon exposing the reaction mixture to higher microwave power and longer retention time inside the microwave. The in-vitro ion dissolution behavior of the as synthesized hydroxyapatite was studied by determining the amount of Ca 2 + ion released in SBF solution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report the successful synthesis of mesoporous erbium doped hydroxyapatite (Er-HA, Ca 10− x Er 2 x /3 □ x /3 (PO 4 ) 6 (OH) 2 ) by using a rapid and efficient microwave assisted wet precipitation method. Characterization techniques like X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infra-red (FTIR), X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (XRF), Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (BET) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were used to determine lattice parameters, particle size, degree of crystallinity, elemental composition, surface area and morphology of Er-HA. Results confirmed the formation of crystalline Er-HA having crystallite size of 25 nm with spherical and rod like morphology, while the TEM analysis confirmed the mesoporous nature of the particles. Optical spectra of Er-HA contained seven electron transitions, whereas blue shift in the energy band gap ( E g ) was observed upon increase in Er 3+ content. The photoluminescence (PL) spectra contained green and red emissions. In vitro bioactivity study conducted in SBF revealed that the incorporation of Er 3+ ions into HA structure lead to the faster discharge of Er 3+ ions resulting in intense growth of apatite grains on the surface of the Er-HA pellets with Ca/P ratio of 1.72. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increasing demand to monitor the resorption of bone grafting materials in a biological environment has led the scientists to focus their attention towards the synthesis of photoluminescent biomaterials. Chromium (III) exhibits a strong photoluminescence signal, which can be used to monitor the flow of body fluids or resorption of Cr 3+ doped biomaterials. In this study we have successfully doped Cr 3+ ions into β-Tricalcium phosphate [Ca 3−(3/2) x Cr x □ (1/2) x (PO 4 ) 2 ] structure by a two steps process: microwave assisted wet precipitation of calcium deficient apatite [Ca 9 − x Cr x (HPO 4 )(PO 4 ) 5 (OH)] followed by its calcination at 1200 °C for 2 h. Physicochemical properties of the samples analyzed by X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM). XRD and FTIR data confirmed the formation of crystalline Cr 3+ doped β-Tricalcium phosphate. XRD data revealed a gradual decrease in the lattice parameters along the a and c -axis with increasing concentration of Cr 3+ ions. The FESEM analysis showed a change in morphology from stacked nanoflakes to micron sized spherical particles upon Cr 3+ doping into the crystal structure. Optical spectra and photoluminescence spectra of Cr 3+ doped β-Tricalcium phosphate confirmed their possible biomedical use as fluorescent probes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bioactive glasses ( BGs) based on 50SiO2-45CaO-5P2O5 system doped with 1, 5, and 10 mol% CuO or Ag2O were separately synthesized using quick alkali sol-gel method. Scanning electron microscope ( SEM) analysis of the samples confirmed the formation of nano-sized BGs, whereas Fourier transform infrared ( FTIR) spectra showed characteristic peaks for silica and phosphate groups. X-ray diffraction ( XRD) pattern of the heat-treated (700°C) samples revealed the presence of crystalline metallic silver phase in all Ag-doped samples, while the XRD pattern of Cu-doped and control sample (50Si-45CaO-5P2O5) also heat-treated at 700°C confirmed their amorphous nature. Ultraviolet-visible ( UV-Vis) studies along with Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy ( EDX) analysis confirmed the successful incorporation of Cu and Ag in bioglass. Antibacterial properties of the synthesized BGs were investigated by quantitative viable count method, and the results were related to the ion release profiles of the samples studied by flame atomic absorption spectroscopy ( FAAS). Fast initial release of Ag observed in this study makes Ag-doped BG a better rapid bacteria-killing agent than Cu-doped BG, which exhibited a prolonged release of ions, suggesting that it may be a better candidate for long-term antibacterial protection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Several compositions of bioactive glass (BG) containing ceria were synthesized from chloride precursor using quick alkali sol–gel method. XRD data revealed the presence of ceria in 5 and 10mol% Ce samples. SEM and EDX characterization confirmed the nano-size and elemental composition of all samples, while FTIR data indicated that high Ce content has disrupted the silicate network of BG. UV absorption spectrum showed that ceria in BG samples is present in +3 and +4 oxidation states, depending on the initial cerium content. Nitrogen adsorption–desorption isotherm confirmed the mesoporosity of the samples. 5 and 10mol% Ce samples exhibited significant antibacterial properties compared to 1Ce and 50Si samples. All samples induced the formation of apatite particles with Ca/P ratio close to 1.67 upon immersion in simulated body fluid (SBF), confirming their good bioactivity. For the first time, this study has demonstrated that cerium is a promising candidate to impart BG with excellent antibacterial properties without compromising its bioactivity. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Inorganic sulphate is required by all mammalian cells to function properly, it is the fourth most abundant anion in the human plasma. Sulphate ions are the major source of sulphur which is considered an important element for sustenance of life as it is present in the essential amino and is required by cells to function properly. In this study we have successfully substituted sulphate ions (SO4 2−) into hydroxyapatite (Ca10(PO4)6− x (SO4) x (OH)2− x ) lattice via ion exchange process with phosphate group. Concentration of SO4 2− ions was varied between X =0.05–0.5, using (Ca (NO3)2·4H2O), ((NH4)2HPO4) and (Na2SO4) as starting materials. X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform IR spectroscopy (FTIR), showed that the substitution of SO4 2− ions into the lattice resulted in peak broadening and reduced peak height due to the amorphous nature and reduced crystallinity of the resulting HA powder. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and field emission electron microscopy (FESEM) analysis confirmed the formation of needle shaped particles of 41nm size with homogenous and uniform distribution of element within the HA structure. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Surface reactivity in physiological fluid has been linked to bioactivity of a material. Past research has shown that bioactive glass containing zinc has the potential in bone regeneration field due to its enhanced bioactivity. However, results from literature are always contradictory. Therefore, in this study, surface reactivity of bioactive glass containing zinc was evaluated through the study of morphology and composition of apatite layer formed after immersion in simulated body fluid (SBF). Nano-sized bioactive glass with 5 and 10 mol% zinc were synthesized through quick alkali sol–gel method. The synthesized Zn–bioglass was characterized using field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM), energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDX), X-ray diffractometer (XRD) and Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (FTIR). Samples after SBF immersion were characterized using scanning electron microscope (SEM) and EDX. Morphological study through SEM showed the formation of spherical apatite particles with Ca/P ratio closer to 1.67 on the surface of 5 mol% Zn–bioglass. Whereas, the 10 mol% Zn–bioglass samples induced the formation of flake-like structure of calcite in addition to the spherical apatite particles with much higher Ca/P ratio. Our results suggest that the higher Zn content increases the bioactivity through the formation of bone-bonding calcite as well as the spherical apatite particles. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Ion doping is an approach to modify properties of materials, like hydroxyapatite (HA), that contributes to designing biomaterials with desired characteristics applicable in bone defect treatments. Recently, boron (B) has been noticed in biomaterial fields due to its beneficial effects on formation, growth, and quality of bone. In this study, B-doped HA nanoparticles with different molar concentrations of B (0.05, 0.1, 0.25, and 0.5) were synthesized through microwave-assisted wet precipitation. The effects of B content on various properties of HA were evaluated. The results demonstrated that the size of HA particles reduced from 106 nm to 89-85 nm in B doped materials. Meanwhile, the crystallinity degree of B doped HA (BHA) samples was between 89.90% and 93.77%, compared to 95.19% of HA. Diametral tensile strength of samples was measured in the ranges of 2.51 and 3.61 with no significant difference among groups. The micro-hardness of HA was 0.88 GPa, whilst doped ones had hardness values of 0.5 GPa–0.68 GPa. Biodegradability of samples increased from less than 1% to approximately 4% after 28 days, while B-doping did not make any change in the degradation rate. Doping dosages were appropriate in terms of bioactivity and cell viability, and B doping caused higher bioactivity and cell proliferation. All changed properties were dose-dependent and more effective in doped groups with a higher amount of B. Despite proliferative effect, 260 μg/l and 770 μg/l of B release in two groups with the highest dopant concentrations did not positively influence the osteogenic activity of cells. Our results demonstrated that doping concentrations that resulted in B release ≤260 μg/l seem more appropriate dosage, especially for bone tissue engineering and substitute applications due to promoted bioactivity and proliferation, as well as no obstructive effects on mechanical properties and osteogenic activities of HA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we have successfully doped hydroxyapatite (HA) with zinc (Zn2+), sulphate (SO 4 2−) and fluoride (F−) ions to develop a new composition of bioceramic, Ca 10-x Zn x (PO 4) 6-y (SO 4) y (OH) 2-z-y F z (SO 4) y , (x = 0, 0.2, 0.6, 1.0, y = 0, 0.5 and z = 0,1.0 mol) , using wet precipitation method. The obtained materials were analysed using XRD, FTIR, FESEM, and XPS techniques to investigate the phase purity, particle morphology and elemental composition, respectively. A model anticancer drug (Doxorubicin, DOX) was loaded onto the surface of the Zn/SO 4 -FHA materials. About 100% loading of DOX with a controlled release profile was obtained. Degradation of materials in Simulated body fluid (SBF) was greatly improved with the incorporation of Zn2+/SO 4 2− ions in comparison to HA/FHA, which makes it highly bioactive materials. In vitro cell viability and adhesion of Human fetal osteoblast (hFOB) cell were investigated. Cell viability has demonstrated that the hFOB cells proliferated at a high rate on Zn/SO 4 -FHA materials, confirming the in vitro biocompatibility of the materials. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and intracellular calcium deposition of hFOB cells seeded on 1ZnSO 4 -FHA disc surface was statistically higher than observed on pure HA and FHA discs, indicating that hFOB cells differentiated into mature osteoblasts on 1Zn/SO 4 -FHA disc surfaces. Taken together, our results suggest that HA substituted by (Zn2+, 0.2 mol), (SO 4 2−, 0.5 mol) and (F−, 1 mol) (1Zn/SO 4 -FHA) material was a promising material for hard tissue scaffolds. • Zinc and sulphate ions doped fluorohydroxyapatite (Zn2+/SO 4 2−-FHA) nanocrystalline structure has been synthesized. • High drug loading capacity of FHA was observed with incorporation of Zn2+/SO 4 2− ions. • Enhancement in degradation and bioactivity properties of FHA was observed with incorporation of Zn2+/SO 4 2− ions. • The addition of Zn2+/SO 4 2− ions have been shown to improve hFOB cell proliferation and adhesion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biocompatible and bioactive composite scaffolds are essential in bone tissue regeneration because of their bioactivity and multilevel porous assemblies. There is a high demand for three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds to treat bone regeneration defects, trauma, and congenital skeletal abnormalities in the current scenario. The main objective of this review is to collect all the possible information concerning synthetic and natural polymer-Bioglass (BG)-based scaffold materials and systematically present them to summarize the importance and need for these materials. The importance of the bone tissue engineering field has been highlighted. Given the current challenges, a comprehensive description of materials fabrication and patterns in scaffold structures is required. This review also includes the most crucial aspect of this study: why are polymeric materials mixed with BG materials? Individually, both BG and polymeric materials lack specific essential characteristics to enhance the scope of these materials. However, preparing the composites of both ensures the researchers that composites of polymers and BG have improved properties that make them versatile materials for bone tissue engineering applications. This study deals with the individual drawbacks of the inorganic BGs, synthetic polymers, and the deficiencies of natural polymers. This study has also included a brief description of various scaffold fabricating techniques. Finally, this study revealed that by manufacturing and developing novel composite materials-scaffolds bearing the capability to repair, heal, and regenerate accidentally damaged or badly injured bones, many occasional problems can be solved in vivo and in vitro. Moreover, this review demonstrated that natural polymeric materials present many advantages over synthetic bone grafts. Yet, synthetic biomaterials have one additional attractive feature, as they have the flexibility to be designed according to the desired demands. These features make them the best choice for a wide range of bone tissue engineering projects for orthopedic surgeons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study we have used continuous microwave flow synthesis (CMFS) technique to synthesize nanosized titania (TiO 2 ). The effect of microwave power (MwP) on the physicochemical properties of TiO 2 has been evaluated. Particle morphology and degree of crystallinity were studied using TEM and XRD respectively. The specific surface area was quantified by using BET method and catalytic degradation of methylene blue (MB) was also measured. The UV–vis studies identified a red-shift in the energy bandgap ( E g = 2.95 eV) of TiO 2 and the photoluminescence (PL) study revealed a significant reduction in the surface oxygen defects under the influence of increased MwP. This study has demonstrated that, due to the visible region E g , TiO 2 nanoparticles can be used effectively as a photocatalyst and as photovoltaic solar cell material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Calcium sulfate-bioactive glass (CSBG) composites doped with 5, 10 and 20 mol% Fe were synthesized using quick alkali sol–gel method. X-ray diffraction (XRD) data of samples heated at 700 °C revealed the presence of anhydrite, while field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) characterization confirmed the formation of nano-sized CSBGs. The UV–vis studies confirmed that the main iron species in 5% Fe and 10% Fe doped CSBGs were tetrahedral Fe(III) whereas that in 20% Fe doped CSBG were extra-framework FeO x oligomers or iron oxide phases. Measurement of magnetic properties of the samples by vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM) showed very narrow hysteresis loop with zero coercivity and remanence for 10% Fe and 20% Fe doped CSBG, indicating that they are superparamagnetic in nature. All samples induced the formation of apatite layer with Ca/P ratio close to the stoichiometric HA in simulated body fluid (SBF) assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microwave assisted wet precipitation method was used to synthesize calcium deficient strontium doped β-tricalcium phosphate (Sr-βTCP) with a chemical formula of Ca 2.96-x Sr x (PO 4 ) 2 . Sr-βTCP was reacted with monocalcium phosphate monohydrate [Ca(H 2 PO 4 ) 2 .H 2 O, MCPM] in presence of water to furnish corresponding Sr containing brushite cement (Sr-Brc). The samples were characterized by using X-ray diffractometry (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM). Strontium content in the prepared samples was determined by using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). The effect of Sr 2+ ions on the structural, mechanical, setting properties and drug release of the cement is reported. Incorporation of Sr 2+ ions improved the injectability, setting time and mechanical properties of the Brc. The release profiles of antibiotics incorporated in Brc and Sr-Brc confirmed that the Sr incorporation into the Brc results in the efficient release of the antibiotics from the cement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]