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The dorsal surfaces of many taxonomic groups often feature repetitive pattern elements consisting of stripes, spots, or bands. Here, we investigate how distinct categories of camouflage pattern work by relating them to ecological and behavioral traits in 439 species of gecko. We use phylogenetic comparative methods to test outstanding hypotheses based on camouflage theory and research in other taxa. We found that bands are associated with nocturnal activity, suggesting bands provide effective camouflage for motionless geckos resting in refugia during the day. A predicted association between stripes and diurnal activity was not supported, suggesting that stripes do not work via dazzle camouflage mechanisms in geckos. This, along with a lack of support for our prediction that plain patterning should be associated with open habitats, suggests that similar camouflage patterns do not work in consistent ways across taxa. We also found that plain and striped lineages frequently switched between using open or closed habitats, whereas spotted lineages rarely transitioned. This suggests that pattern categories differ in how specialized or generalized their camouflage is. This result has ramifications for theory on how camouflage compromises to background heterogeneity and how camouflage pattern might influence evolutionary trajectories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Why are some snakes blotchy and others stripy? Evidence suggests it mainly depends on a snake’s behavior strategy. Analysis of the patterns of 171 species of North American and Australian snakes showed that blotched snakes are generally large ambush hunters, whereas plain and striped snakes are especially active or flee rapidly away from predator.Species in the suborder Serpentes present a powerful model for understanding processes involved in visual signal design. Although vision is generally poor in snakes, they are often both predators and prey of visually oriented species. We examined how ecological and behavioral factors have driven the evolution of snake patterning using a phylogenetic comparative approach. The appearances of 171 species of Australian and North American snakes were classified using a reaction-diffusion model of pattern development, the parameters of which allow parametric quantification of various aspects of coloration. The main findings include associations between plain color and an active hunting strategy, longitudinal stripes and rapid escape speed, blotched patterns with ambush hunting, slow movement and pungent cloacal defense, and spotted patterns with close proximity to cover. Expected associations between bright colors, aggressive behavior, and venom potency were not observed. The mechanisms through which plain and longitudinally striped patterns might support camouflage during movement are discussed. The flicker-fusion hypothesis for transverse striped patterns being perceived as uniform color during movement is evaluated as theoretically possible but unlikely. Snake pattern evolution is generally phylogenetically conservative, but by sampling densely in a wide variety of snake lineages, we have demonstrated that similar pattern phenotypes have evolved repeatedly in response to similar ecological demands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study of visual signal design is gaining momentum as techniques for studying signals become more sophisticated and more freely available. In this paper we discuss methods for analyzing the color and form of visual signals, for integrating signal components into visual scenes, and for producing visual signal stimuli for use in psychophysical experiments. Our recommended methods aim to be rigorous, detailed, quantitative, objective, and where possible based on the perceptual representation of the intended signal receiver(s). As methods for analyzing signal color and luminance have been outlined in previous publications we focus on analyzing form information by discussing how statistical shape analysis (SSA) methods can be used to analyze signal shape, and spatial filtering to analyze repetitive patterns. We also suggest the use of vector-based approaches for integrating multiple signal components. In our opinion elliptical Fourier analysis (EFA) is the most promising technique for shape quantification but we await the results of empirical comparison of techniques and the development of new shape analysis methods based on the cognitive and perceptual representations of receivers. Our manuscript should serve as an introductory guide to those interested in measuring visual signals, and while our examples focus on primate signals, the methods are applicable to quantifying visual signals in most taxa. Am. J. Primatol. 75:664-682, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Countershading, a vertical luminance gradient from a dark back to a light belly, is perhaps the most common coloration phenotype in the animal kingdom. Why? We investigated whether countershading functions as self-shadow concealment (SSC) in ruminants. We calculated "optimal" countershading for SSC by measuring illumination falling onto a model ruminant as a function of time of day and lighting environment. Calibrated images of 114 species of ruminant were compared to the countershading model, and phylogenetic analyses were used to find the best predictors of coats' countershading characteristics. In many species, countershading was close to the model's prediction of "optimal" countershading for SSC. Stronger countershading was associated with increased use of open lighting environments, living closer to the equator, and small body size. Abrupt transitions from dark to light tones were more common in open lighting environments but unassociated with group size or antipredator behavior. Though the SSC hypothesis prediction for stronger countershading in diurnal species was not supported and noncountershaded or reverse-countershaded species were unexpectedly common, this basic pattern of associations is explained only by the SSC hypothesis. Despite extreme variation in lighting conditions, many terrestrial animals still find protection from predation by compensating for their own shadows. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A complete explanation of the diversity of animal colour patterns requires an understanding of both the developmental mechanisms generating them and their adaptive value. However, only two previous studies, which involved computer-generated evolving prey, have attempted to make this link. This study examines variation in the camouflage patterns displayed on the flanks of many felids. After controlling for the effects of shared ancestry using a fully resolved molecular phylogeny, this study shows how phenotypes from plausible felid coat pattern generation mechanisms relate to ecology. We found that likelihood of patterning and pattern attributes, such as complexity and irregularity, were related to felids' habitats, arboreality and nocturnality. Our analysis also indicates that disruptive selection is a likely explanation for the prevalence of melanistic forms in Felidae. Furthermore, we show that there is little phylogenetic signal in the visual appearance of felid patterning, indicating that camouflage adapts to ecology over relatively short time scales. Our method could be applied to any taxon with colour patterns that can reasonably be matched to reaction-diffusion and similar models, where the kinetics of the reaction between two or more initially randomly dispersed morphogens determines the outcome of pattern development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Here, we investigate the camouflage consequences of animal orientation behaviour. Shadows can be a conspicuous cue to the presence of prey. For bilaterally symmetrical animals, light field modelling indicates that camouflage will be improved when an animal orients its longitudinal axis directly towards or away from the sun, because the appearance of shadows is minimized. We test this prediction with a field predation experiment, in which wild birds hunt for artificial camouflaged prey oriented with the longitudinal axis either parallel or perpendicular to the sun. We find that prey oriented parallel to the sun are 3.93 times more likely to survive than prey oriented perpendicular to the sun. This result demonstrates the strong orientation dependence of camouflage. Given the dramatic difference in survival of prey with different orientations, we suggest that camouflage should be investigated as an important determinant of the positional behaviour of animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]