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The increase in energy valorization of paper sludge and biomass waste through incineration results in a rise in waste paper fly ash (WPFA), often perceived as hazardous and requiring specific treatment. In this study, natural carbonation technology at a pilot scale was employed to mitigate the hazardous nature of WPFA by enhancing the stabilization of metal and metalloid trace elements (MMTE), particularly barium (Ba) and lead (Pb) leaching. Natural carbonation of WPFA was found to be optimal at a water/solid ratio of 0.3 L/kg under natural temperature and humidity conditions. Batch leaching tests based on thermodynamic equilibrium were used to assess MMTE solubility concerning pH in both non-carbonated and carbonated WPFA at natural pH. After 7 days of natural carbonation, the leaching concentration of Ba and Pb was below the legal limit in France. The concentration of Ba and Pb in carbonated samples decreased by 98.5% and 98%, respectively. Analyses using thermogravimetry, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive spectroscopy demonstrated the increased formation and quantity of calcite (CaCO3) with longer carbonation times, along with the formation of new minerals as BaCO3 and PbCO3, confirming the immobilization of these elements post-carbonation. The leaching behavior and release potential of carbonated WPFA were further evaluated using the four-stage sequential extraction procedure proposed by the European Commission's Bureau of Reference (BCR). The speciation of Ba and Pb shifted significantly from the soluble substance (F1) at 17.6% and 14.8%, respectively, to the carbonate fraction (F2) at 0.49% and 0.02% after 90 days of carbonation. The percolation water collected during the carbonation process adheres to discharge standards into the sea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Flexible calcium carbonate (FCC) was developed as a functional papermaking filler for high loaded paper, which was a fiber-like shaped calcium carbonate produced from the in situ carbonation process on the cellulose micro-or nanofibril surface. Chitin is the second most abundant renewable material after cellulose. In this study, a chitin microfibril was utilized as the fibril core for making the FCC. Cellulose fibrils for the preparation of FCC were obtained by fibrillation of the TEMPO (2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl radical) treated wood fibers. The chitin fibril was obtained from the β-chitin from the born of squid fibrillated in water by grinding. Both fibrils were mixed with calcium oxide and underwent a carbonation process by the addition of carbon dioxide, thus the calcium carbonate attached on the fibrils to make FCC. When used in papermaking, both the FCC from chitin and cellulose gave a much higher bulk and tensile strength simultaneously than the conventional papermaking filler of ground calcium carbonate, while maintaining the other essential properties of paper. The FCC from chitin caused an even higher bulk and higher tensile strength than those of the FCC from cellulose in paper materials. Furthermore, the simple preparation method of the chitin FCC in comparison with the cellulose FCC may enable a reduction in the use of wood fibers, process energy, and the production cost of paper materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To accurately quantify the variation in concrete carbonation depth, selecting an appropriate mathematical curve model is crucial. Currently prevalent models, such as the Fick model and exponential models, confront limitations in prediction accuracy and range of application. Given that a single curve model struggles to precisely describe the pattern of concrete carbonation, this work introduces a mixed-curve-based prediction model for carbonation depth, effectively integrating the Fick model with a hyperbolic model. Compared to the Fick model, the additional term in the mixed-curve model can be viewed as a reasonable correction to better adapt to the complex and varied conditions of concrete carbonation. This hybrid model transcends the limitations of individual models, enhancing fitting precision and broadening the scope of applicability. The new model boasts a concise structure with only two fitting parameters, facilitating ease of application. To validate its superiority, rigorous comparisons were conducted between the proposed model and existing ones, leveraging experimental data from 10 distinct concrete carbonation scenarios. By comparing the average error, standard deviation, and coefficient of determination across these cases, the new model demonstrates a clear advantage over the Fick model and the exponential model. In terms of fitting errors, the average error and standard deviation of the new model are notably lower than those of the other two models. In terms of the coefficient of determination, the values achieved by the new model in all examples are closer to 1 than those of both the Fick model and the exponential model, underscoring the new model's superior fitting quality and remarkable stability. This research indicates that the combined model presented in this paper holds promising prospects for widespread application in predicting concrete carbonation depth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lime mortars are considered the most compatible material for monuments and historic buildings, and they are widely used in restoration works. A key factor determining the mechanical and physical properties of lime mortars is carbonation, which provides strength and hardness. This paper indicates the properties gained in lime mortars produced by Ca(OH)2 and CaO reinforced with different bio-fibers (hemp and lavender) when exposed to the natural environment and in accelerated carbonation. At 90 and 180 days of manufacture, the mechanical and physical properties of the produced composites have been tested. The results show that the carbonation reaction works faster in the case of hot lime mortars, increasing their compressive strength by up to 3.5 times. Hemp-reinforced mortars led to an enhancement in strength by up to 30%, highlighting the significance of bio-fibers in facilitating CO2 diffusion. This was also verified by the thermogravimetric analysis and the determination of the carbon content of the samples. Optimal mechanical properties were observed in mixtures containing quicklime and hemp fibers when conditioned with 3% CO2 at the tested ages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The construction sector is among the most polluting industries globally, accounting for approximately 37.5% of the European Union's total waste generation in 2020. Therefore, it is imperative to develop strategies to enhance the sustainability of this sector. This paper proposes a multiscale COMSOL Multiphysics numerical model for an ex situ mineral carbonation process of hydrated lime. The carbonation process is characterized at both the micro- and macroscale levels, encompassing interactions within and between the particles. This model incorporates both reaction and diffusion phenomena, considering the effects of porosity and liquid-water saturation parameters. Generally, liquid-water saturation enhances the reaction kinetics but not CO2 diffusion, while porosity improves CO2 diffusion throughout the granular bed. The model has been experimentally validated, showing promising results by accurately characterizing carbonation tendencies and the influence of the CO2 flow rate and the initial water-to-solid ratio on the carbonation process. The proposed mathematical model facilitates the study of various parameters, including particle radius, reactor geometry, and material porosity. This analysis is valuable for both current and future projects, as it aims to identify the most profitable configurations for the hydrated lime carbonation process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Normally, the acidic impurities in hemihydrate phosphogypsum (HPG) must be neutralized when HPG is utilized, and a little amount of calcium hydroxide (CH) is the best choice. In this paper, the effects of excessive CH (5 wt.%, 10 wt.%, 15 wt.% and 20 wt.% of HPG) for carbonation curing on the performance of hardened HPG paste were studied. According to the results of macro tests and microanalyses of XRD, TG, SEM-EDS, MIP and N2 physisorption, it could be verified that CaF2, Ca3(PO4)2 and a large amount of nanoscale CaCO3 crystals were produced as a result of neutralization and carbonation, and the compressive strength and the water resistance of carbonated HPG + CH paste were significantly improved due to the effects of nanoscale CaCO3 crystals on pore refinement and the coverage on the surfaces of gypsum crystals of the hardened paste. Therefore, this study suggests a feasible and green method for recycling HPG/PG, with the collaborative effects of neutralization, performance enhancement and reductions in CO2 emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The durability of concrete structures, which are designed for long- -term use is predominantly determined by the resistance to chemical influences, i.e., the concrete's ability to protect the reinforcement steel. The carbonation and the chloride ingress into concrete are the most significant causes of steel corrosion and the potential failure of the structure. The primary goal is to ensure that any significant damage does not occur during the structure's service life, primarily achieved by selecting an adequate thickness of the concrete cover. The issue is approached through calculations based on performance analyses, and the use of appropriate models for these chemical phenomena. The paper provides a brief overview and the methodology for analysing the impact on the durability of concrete structures in accordance with the leading international normative documents. The emphasis is on the recent changes introduced in second generation of European Eurocode standards. The consequences of the analysed phenomena are presented through the results of field tests conducted at salt factories, coke industries, and thermal power plants, and through laboratory tests. The tests were performed in order to develop a rapid prediction method for the measure of chloride ingress into concrete without the stimulating chloride ion migration by electricity, as an alternative to standardized tests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The heterogenous mineralogy of ultramafic deposits hosting mining operations makes it challenging to accurately determine the waste rock's mineral carbonation potential (MCP). Additionally, the significantly higher carbonation capabilities of olivine than serpentine add to the difficulty. To address this issue, in this work, a new and unique tool called the MCP calculator was developed as a Microsoft ExcelTM spreadsheet to accurately determine the amount of anthropogenic CO2 that a given rock mass can sequester through mineral carbonation. The program estimates the modal mineral abundance of ultramafic rocks to aid in MCP estimation. This tool is designed to be cost-effective and tailored for use by the mining industry, utilising abundant lithogeochemical data to evaluate their deposit as a potential substrate for industrial mineral carbonation operations. The paper introduces the MCP calculator, outlines a framework for developing the MCP parameter, and presents an example of its application. The calculator is specific to the mineral assemblage investigated at the Turnagain ultramafic complex in northern British Columbia but can be adjusted to study comparable deposits. The paper acknowledges that using waste rock in a mineral carbonation operation requires economic and practical decisions beyond the scope of the research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mineral carbonation is a technology for capturing and storing CO2 in solid minerals. When mineral carbonation is used to produce construction materials, the quantification of the CO2 uptake of these products is of the utmost importance, as it is used to calculate the CO2 footprint of the product and/or carbon offset. The CO2 uptake is generally determined by measuring the CO2 content of a material before and after accelerated carbonation. This approach, however, does not take hydration and dehydroxylation reactions into account that may occur during carbonation, and it can therefore under- or overestimate the CO2 uptake. Thus, a more accurate and practical method to determine CO2 uptake, which also accounts for hydration and dehydroxylation reactions, is proposed in this paper. This method is based on analytical methods to determine the dry mass and the CO2 content of the solid products before and after carbonation, and on the calculation of the CO2 uptake by the following equation: CO2 uptake (wt.%) = CO2 carbonated (wt.%) × (weight after carbonation (g)/weight before carbonation (g) − CO2 initial (wt.%), with CO2 carbonated being the CO2 content in g/100 g dried carbonated material, and CO2 initial being the CO2 content in g/100 g dried initial material, i.e., before carbonation. The "weight before carbonation" is the dry weight of the initial material, and the "weight after carbonation" is the product's dry weight after carbonation. In this paper, we show that up to 44% under- or overestimation of CO2 uptake can occur when hydration and dehydroxylation reactions are not taken into account during mineral carbonation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses the possibility of assessing the k-value of power plant fly ash using durability. Compressive strengths, activity indices, pressure water seepage depth and carbonation depth were determined for cement mortars with 10, 20 and 30% cement replacement by fly ash for ages of 7, 28 and 60 days. The k-values for each cement substitute were determined for each age using the relationship between water/cement ratio and compressive strength. Using the results of the depth of pressurized water seepage and depth of carbonation, the determined k-values were assessed and k-values that are safe for use of power plant fly ash in aggressive XC and XD environments were determined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current building industry is essentially changing due to implementation of new approach, which is predominantly motivated by the need to reduce its negative environmental impact. The paper is focused on the experimental evaluation of carbonation resistance in terms of accelerated tests performed on the concrete on the basis of blended binding system incorporating milled limestone. The used commercially produced cement was additionally modified by the limestone powder. The obtained results confirmed, that currently used design standards are convenient to real carbonation process, however further clinker replacement by the milled limestone causes significant loss of the durability of the hardened concrete. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The wet carbonation process of steel slag (SS) is envisaged to be an effective way to sequestrate CO2 and improve the properties of SS as a supplementary cementitious material. However, the carbonation process still struggles with having a low carbonation efficiency. This paper studied the effect of glycine on the accelerated carbonation of SS. The phase composition change of carbonated SS was analyzed via XRD, FT-IR, and TG–DTG. The carbonation process of SS is facilitated by the assistance of glycine, with which the carbonation degree is increased. After 60 min of carbonation, SS with glycine obtained a CO2 sequestration rate of 9.42%. Meanwhile, the carbonation reaction could decrease the content of free calcium oxide in SS. This significantly improves the soundness of SS–cement cementitious material, and the compressive strength of cementitious materials that contain carbonated SS with glycine is improved. Additionally, the cycling performance of glycine in the successive wet carbonation process of SS was investigated. Multicycle experiments via solvent recovery demonstrated that although the promotion effect of glycine was reduced after each cycle, compared with the SS–water system, the carbonation process could still be facilitated, demonstrating that successive wet carbonation via solvent recovery has considerable potential. Herein, we provide a new idea to facilitate the wet carbonation process of SS and improve the properties of SS–cement cementitious material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which is the United Nations body for assessing the science related to climate change, has recently recognized the natural carbonation process as a way of carbon offsetting with mortar and concrete. Accordingly, this activity could be recognized as a carbon removal process for which certification should be granted. The aim of the certification of carbon removal is to promote the development of adequate and efficient new carbon removal processes. Therefore, the main objective of this study is to provide reliable results on carbon dioxide uptake by cement-based materials in Spain. Yearly, greenhouse gas emissions are reported to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) by each country, and the natural carbonation should be added up to the carbon accounting. Therefore, natural carbonation should be included in the IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, and such accounting information should be made available promptly to the national regulatory authorities. This paper provides the results of carbon dioxide uptake by Spanish cement-based materials from 1990 to 2020 by using an easy method of estimating the net carbon dioxide emissions (simplified method) considering the carbon dioxide released by the calcination during clinker production (process emissions). The outcome of this study reveals that there was 93,556,000 tons of carbon dioxide uptake by the mortar and concrete manufactured in Spain from 1990 to 2020. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents comprehensive research of the advantages and applicability of various concrete carbonation detection methods. Employing a combination of Phenolphthalein indicator (PI), Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray phase analysis (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and Quantitative calcium carbonate analysis (CA), a detailed comparison to determine the carbonation depth in the partial carbonation zone of concrete specimens is conducted. Among the quantitative analysis methods, CA measures CaCO3 content based on chemical reactions, while TGA obtains the concentration distribution of Ca(OH)2 and CaCO3. Among qualitative analysis methods, XRD tested the intensity distribution of Ca(OH)2 and CaCO3, while FTIR traced the characteristic peaks of C-O functional groups in a specific spectral range to determine the depth of carbonation of concrete. Results indicate that the depth of carbonation values measured by CA, TGA, XRDA, and FTIR are 2–3 times higher than those measured by PI. This research may provide valuable insights for the design of carbonation detection in concrete. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a literature review on the effects of accelerated carbonation on alkali-activated materials. It attempts to provide a greater understanding of the influence of CO2 curing on the chemical and physical properties of various types of alkali-activated binders used in pastes, mortars, and concrete. Several aspects related to changes in chemistry and mineralogy have been carefully identified and discussed, including depth of CO2 interaction, sequestration, reactions with calcium-based phases (e.g., calcium hydroxide and calcium silicate hydrates and calcium aluminosilicate hydrates), as well as other aspects related to the chemical composition of alkali-activated materials. Emphasis has also been given to physical alterations such as volumetric changes, density, porosity, and other microstructural properties caused by induced carbonation. Moreover, this paper reviews the influence of the accelerated carbonation curing method on the strength development of alkali-activated materials, which has been awarded little attention considering its potential. This curing technique was found to contribute to the strength development mainly through decalcification of the Ca phases existing in the alkali-activated precursor, leading to the formation of CaCO3, which leads to microstructural densification. Interestingly, this curing method seems to have much to offer in terms of mechanical performance, making it an attractive curing solution that can compensate for the loss in performance caused by less efficient alkali-activated binders replacing Portland cement. Optimising the application of such CO2-based curing methods for each of the potential alkali-activated binders is recommended for future studies for maximum microstructural improvement, and thus mechanical enhancement, to make some of the "low-performing binders" adequate Portland cement substitutes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Magnesium silicate hydrate (MSH) cement has the advantages of low energy consumption, minimal environmental pollution, carbon negativity, and reduced alkalinity, but excessive drying shrinkage inhibits its application. This paper analyzed the influence of steel slag (SS) dosage, carbon dioxide partial pressure, and carbonation curing time on the compressive strength, shrinkage rate, and phase composition of MSH cement. Various analysis methods, including X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP), were used to study the hydration products and microstructure. The results showed that under normal curing conditions, MSH cement mixed with different steel slag contents experienced a decline in strength at all ages. However, the greater the amount of SS incorporated, the lesser the degree of drying shrinkage. The compressive strength of all groups was improved, and the drying shrinkage was reduced by carbonation treatment. The samples with 5%, 10%, and 15% SS content exhibited shrinkage rates of 2.19%, 1.74%, and 1.60%, respectively, after 28 days of curing. The reason was that after carbonation treatment, hydrated magnesium carbonates (HMCs) were generated in the SS–MSH cement, and a Ca–Mg–C amorphous substance formed by hydration and carbonation of C2S in steel slag filled in the pores, which enhanced the density of the matrix, improved the compressive strength of the specimen, and reduced the shrinkage rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In practice, assessing the mechanical behavior of seawater sea sand concrete under severe environmental conditions is urgently needed to evaluate the service life of the prepared concrete. In this paper, the influence of carbonation on the mechanical properties, especially the stress–strain relationship of seawater and sea sand concrete (SSC), sea sand concrete (SC), and ordinary concrete (OC), were investigated by experimental and theoretical means. The microstructural analysis revealed that SSC and SC have higher CO2 sequestration than OC. Although the compressive strength of all concrete specimens increased during the carbonation time, the net increase of compressive strength (excluding cement hydration) contributed by the carbonation of SSC and SC was less than that of OC. The stress–strain curves' ascending branches of the three types were roughly similar; for the descending branch, the slope of SSC and SC became steeper compared with OC after carbonation. The results also revealed that the brittleness of SSC and SC increased orderly with the extension of carbonation time. Finally, an empirical expression for the stress–strain relationship of SSC and SC considering the effect of carbonation was proposed, which provides an analytical base for concrete structure design and practical application for marine infrastructures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) includes recycled concrete aggregates (coarse and/or fine) as substitutes for natural aggregates as an approach to achieving a circular economy. Some concerns remain about its performance, including the carbonation resistance. The higher porosity of recycled concrete aggregates is logically a disadvantage, but the analysis must address many other factors. This paper provides an in-depth examination of recent advances in the carbonation performance of RAC. The emphasis is on factors that influence CO2 diffusion and the carbonation rate, e.g., the replacement ratio, source concrete quality, interfacial transition zone features, residual portlandite content, and porosity. The influences of previous treatments, combined action with supplementary cementitious materials, and loading conditions are also discussed. The replacement ratio has a significant impact on the carbonation performance of concrete, but it is also dependent on other factors. During carbonation, the physical effects of the porosity of the aggregate and the physical–chemical effects of the portlandite content in the adhered mortar are particularly important. The residual portlandite is especially significant because it is the primary hydration product responsible for the alkaline reserve for carbonation and the potential pozzolanic reaction, which are per se competing factors that determine the carbonation rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recycling process of concrete originates a byproduct, cement paste powder (CPP), which is a material composed mainly of hydrated cement. This cementitious material has demonstrated promising results when applied as a binder in new concrete batches, provided it has been subjected to a previous carbonation process. One of the obstacles to the industrial application of this strategy is the long duration of the typical carbonation process, which requires from 3 to 28 days. Recently, the authors have developed a short two-hour carbonation process and thoroughly analysed it over its entire extension. In this paper, a parametric analysis of the carbonation process is performed towards CO2 uptake maximization, aiming to increase the feasibility of its short duration. CO2 uptake is evaluated using the ignition by furnace method and thermogravimetric analysis. Among the parameters considered, the initial water content and the CPP thickness present the highest impact on CO2 uptake. The investigation of different CO2 concentrations inside the carbonation chamber showed that the maximum CO2 uptake does not occur for the highest concentration value. Moreover, a minimum resident time for the forced carbonation of CPP in industrial contexts is presented, and is found to be highly dependent on the CO2 concentration. The particle size and purity degree of CPP revealed a limited influence on the CO2 uptake achieved. Additionally, this paper provides further insight into the mechanisms involved in the carbonation of mature cement paste while increasing the feasibility of our recently proposed short duration carbonation process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Applications related to alkali-activated materials (AAMs) have received much attention due to their excellent mechanical properties and low-energy production. Although much research has focused on developing AAMs, their application is still limited. One of the primary reasons is the efflorescence. Not only does efflorescence affect the material aesthetics, but it also affects the mechanical performance, leading to a decrease in material quality. This paper first summarizes the current research on AAMs efflorescence. The formation process of efflorescence is divided into three parts: alkaline cation leaching, air carbonation, and efflorescence formation. Furthermore, the influences caused by different factors, including raw materials, curing conditions, AAMs modalities, etc., on the efflorescence are proposed. This paper highlights the solutions for efflorescence by avoiding free alkaline cation leaching and preventing air carbonation. The advantages and disadvantages of efflorescence are discussed in-depth, showing that it can be exploited under certain conditions, such as in wastewater treatment. This paper has important implications for the practical preparation and application of AAMs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Concrete carbonation is known as a stochastic process. Its uncertainties mainly result from parameters that are not considered in prediction models. Parameter selection, therefore, is important. In this paper, based on 8204 sets of data, statistical methods and machine learning techniques were applied to choose appropriate influence factors in terms of three aspects: (1) the correlation between factors and concrete carbonation; (2) factors' influence on the uncertainties of carbonation depth; and (3) the correlation between factors. Both single parameters and parameter groups were evaluated quantitatively. The results showed that compressive strength had the highest correlation with carbonation depth and that using the aggregate–cement ratio as the parameter significantly reduced the dispersion of carbonation depth to a low level. Machine learning models manifested that selected parameter groups had a large potential in improving the performance of models with fewer parameters. This paper also developed machine learning carbonation models and simplified them to propose a practical model. The results showed that this concise model had a high accuracy on both accelerated and natural carbonation test datasets. For natural carbonation datasets, the mean absolute error of the practical model was 1.56 mm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ca-looping is an effective way to capture CO2 from coal-fired power plants. However, there are still issues that require further study. One of these issues is the effect of steam on the Ca-looping process. In this paper, a self-madethermogravimetric analyzer that can achieve rapid heating and cooling is used to measure the change of sample weight under constant temperature conditions. The parameters of the Ca-looping are studied in detail, including the addition of water vapor alone in the calcination or carbonation stage and the calcination/carbonation reaction temperatures for both calcination and carbonation stages with water vapor. Steam has a positive overall effect on CO2 capture in the Ca-looping process. When steam is present in both calcination and carbonation processes, it increases the decomposition rate of CaCO3 and enhances the subsequent carbonation conversion of CaO. However, when steam was present only in the calcination process, there was lower CaO carbonation conversion in the following carbonation process. In contrast, when steam was present in the carbonation stage, CO2 capture was improved. Sample characterizations after the reaction showed that although water vapor had a negative effect on the pore structure, adding water vapor increased the diffusion coefficient of CO2 and the carbonation conversion rate of CaO. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbonation curing on steel slag is one of the most promising technologies for the iron and steel industry to manage its solid waste and carbon emissions. However, the technology is still in its demonstration stage. This paper investigates the market stakeholders of carbonation curing on steel slag for construction materials for its effective application by taking China as a case study. A holistic analysis of the competition, market size, and stakeholders of carbonation curing on steel slag was carried out through a literature review, a survey, a questionnaire, and interviews. The results showed that carbonation curing on steel slag had the advantages of high quality, high efficiency, low cost, and carbon reduction compared with other technologies. Shandong province was the most suitable province for the large-scale primary application of the technology. Stakeholder involvement to establish information platforms, enhance economic incentives, and promote adequate R&D activities would promote carbonation curing of steel slag into practice. This paper provides a reference for the commercialization of carbonation curing on similar calcium- and magnesium-based solid waste materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Steel fiber reinforced geopolymer concrete (SFRGC) shows excellent mechanical properties comparable to steel fiber reinforced concrete. However, research on the durability of SFRGC is scarce. This paper presents the carbonation performances of SFRGC, including the carbonation depth and strength variation during carbonation. The results show that the permeability and carbonation depth of SFRGC are close to those of plain geopolymer concrete (GC). Their carbonation depths are much deeper than those of cement concrete because of the lower alkali content of the geopolymer matrix. Carbonation hardly influences the final flexural strength of plain GC, but the flexural strength of SFRGC declines significantly during carbonation because of the decrease in steel fiber-geopolymer matrix bond strength. The scanning electron microscope results show that the failure mode in uncarbonated SFRGC specimens is fiber rupture, while in carbonated SFRGC specimens, fiber pullout is the failure mode. These findings suggest that using SFRGC in the atmosphere is not recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to investigate the effect of internal and external humidity differences on the distribution characteristics of the carbonated zone of cement-based materials. Carbonation tests with ambient humidity and pore water saturation as the influencing factors were implemented. The calcite content of the mortar along the depth of carbonation was presented. The rationality of the carbonation model was verified by the calcite test results, and the effect of internal and external humidity differences on the carbonation zone distribution of cement-based materials was analyzed by the model. The results showed that the test results of calcium carbonate and the simulation results can clearly distinguish the completely and partly carbonated zones of cement-based materials. The effect of pore water saturation on the distribution of the carbonated area was conspicuous, but the difference in pore water saturation cannot change the variation of the extent of the carbonated zone with ambient humidity. The change regularities of fully and partly carbonated zones with humidity differences were obtained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is the second output of a project that examines the embodied greenhouse gas emissions ('embodied carbon') from the use of concrete in buildings. In the current absence of either regulation or widespread industry practice in quantified carbon assessment, it seems likely that messaging will play a powerful role in influencing designers' perceptions and decisions. Using the UK as a case study, this paper considers the current messages about the carbon implications of concrete in buildings from professional institutions and the cement and concrete trade body. Three mechanisms through which it is claimed carbon emissions are significantly reduced are identified: thermal mass, durability, and carbonation. By assessing each of these in turn against the available scientific literature, it is shown that they are likely to have a far more limited effect on the total impacts than suggested. More accuracy is needed from trade organisations if real carbon reductions are to be achieved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of tricyclic copolymer latex (AMPS) can effectively improve the carbonation resistance of sulphoaluminate cement. This paper investigated polymer AMPS and polycarboxylic acid to modify sulphoaluminate cement materials by exploring the carbonation level of sulphoaluminate cement paste and mortar and the strength before and after carbonation. Then, the optimal dosage of polymer and polycarboxylic acid was obtained so that the carbonation resistance of sulphoaluminate cement reached the best state. The compressive strength was significantly improved by adding AMPS for sulphoaluminate cement paste and mortar. After carbonation, the strength decreased and combined with the carbonation level; it was concluded that the carbonation resistance of sulphoaluminate cement materials was the best when the optimal dosage of AMPS and polycarboxylic acid was 5% and 1.8%, respectively. Due to the addition of AMPS, the hydrated calcium aluminosilicate (C-A-S-H) and hydrated calcium silicate (C-S-H) gels, generated by the hydration of sulphoaluminate cement and the surface of unreacted cement particles, are wrapped by AMPS particles. The water is discharged through cement hydration. The polymer particles on the surface of the hydration product merge into a continuous film, which binds the cement hydration product together to form an overall network structure, penetrating the entire cement hydration phase and forming a polymer cement mortar with excellent structural sealing performance. To prevent the entry of CO2 and achieve the effect of anti-carbonation, adding polycarboxylic acid mainly improves the sample's internal density to achieve the anti-carbonation purpose. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pore structure and composition of cement paste are the main two factors in controlling the sulfate attack on concrete, but the influence of carbonization on pore structure and composition is often ignored in sulfate attack. Therefore, will the damage performance of concrete partially exposed to sulfate solution be different avoiding the alterations of pore structure and composition due to carbonation? In this paper, the cement pastes were partially immersed in 5 wt. % sodium sulfate solution, with N2 as protective gas to avoid carbonation (20 ± 1°C, RH 65 ± 5%). Pore structures of cements were changed by introducing different contents of limestone powders (0 wt. %, 10 wt. %, 20 wt. %, and 30 wt. %) into cement pastes. The damage performance of the specimens was studied by 1H NMR, XRD and SEM. The results showed that the immersion zone of pure cement paste under N2 atmosphere remained intact while serious damage occurred in the evaporation zone. However, the damage of cement + limestone powders pastes appeared in the immersion zone rather than in the evaporation zone and cement pastes containing more limestone were more severely damaged. Compositional analysis suggested that the damage of the evaporation zone or the immersion zone was solely caused by chemical attack where substantial amount of gypsums and ettringites were filled in the pore volumes. Introduction of limestone powders led to the increase of the pore sizes and porosity of cement pastes, causing the damage occurred in the immersion zone not in the evaporation zone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Engineered cementitious composites (ECCs) belong to a broad class of fibre-reinforced concrete. They incorporate synthetic polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibres, cement, fly ash and fine aggregates, and are designed to have a tensile strain capacity typically beyond 3%. This paper presents an investigation on the carbonation behaviour of engineered cementitious composites (ECCs) under coupled sustained flexural load and accelerated carbonation. The carbonation depth under a sustained stress level of 0, 0.075, 0.15, 0.3 and 0.6 relative to flexural strength was measured after 7, 14 and 28 days of accelerated carbonation. Thermogravimetric analysis, mercury intrusion porosimetry and microhardness measurements were carried out to show the coupled influence of sustained flexural load and accelerated carbonation on the changes of the mineral phases, porosity, pore size distribution and microhardness along the carbonation profile. A modified carbonation depth model that can be used to consider the coupled effect of flexural tensile stress and carbonation time was proposed. The results show that an exponential relationship can be observed between stress influence coefficient and flexural tensile stress level in the carbonation depth model of ECC, which is different when using plain concrete. Areas with a higher carbonation degree have greater microhardness, even under a large sustained load level, as the carbonation process refines the pore structure and the fibre bridges the crack effectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reactive transport models are useful tools in the development of cement-based materials. The output of cement-related reactive transport models is primarily regarded as qualitative and not quantitative, mainly due to limited or missing experimental validation. This paper presents an approach to optimize the calibration process of reactive transport models for cement-based materials, using the results of several short-term experiments. A quantitative comparison of changes in the hydrate phases (measured using TGA and XRD) and exposure solution (measured using ICP-OES) was used to (1) establish a representative chemical model, limiting the number of hydrate phases and dissolved species, and (2) calibrate the transport processes by only modeling the initial tortuosity. A case study comprising the early age carbonation of cement is presented to demonstrate the approach. The results demonstrate that the inclusion of a microstructure model in our framework minimizes the impact of the initial tortuosity factor as a fitting parameter for the transport processes. The proposed approach increases the accuracy of reactive transport models and, thus, allowing for more realistic modeling of long-term exposure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The corrosive water environment has a decisive influence on the durability of a diversion tunnel lining. In this paper, the effects of carbonation on cement-based materials in water-immersion and saturated-humidity environments were studied by increasing the CO2 concentration. The results show that under conditions of water-immersion and saturated humidity, the color of the non-carbonation region is dark, while the carbonation region is gray, and the color boundary is obvious. However, in an atmospheric environment, there is no zone with a dark color and the color boundary is not obvious. In a saturated-humidity environment, the carbonation depth increases over time and changes greatly, and its value is about 16.71 mm at 200 days. While in a water-immersion environment, the carbonation depth varies little with time and the value is only 2.31 mm. The carbonation depths of cement mortar samples in different environments generally follow a linear relationship with the square root of time. The carbonation coefficient in a saturated-humidity environment is more than nine times that in the water-immersion environment. In a water-immersion environment, the carbonation causes a large loss of calcium in cement-based materials, and their Ca/Si ratio obviously decreases. The calcium silicon ratio (Ca/Si) of cement-based materials in a water-immersion environment is 0.11, which is much less than 1.51 in a water-saturated environment and 1.49 in an atmospheric environment. In a saturated-humidity environment, the carbonation only reduces the pH of the pore solution in the carbonation region, and the structural stability of cement-based materials is not degraded. The number of pores of all radii after carbonation in a water-immersion environment exceeds that in a saturated-humidity environment, and the total pore volume and average pore radius in a water-immersion environment are also larger than in a saturated-humidity environment, so the water-immersion environment accelerates the development and expansion of pores. The research results can provide some theoretical and technical support for the design, construction, and safe operation of diversion tunnel linings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A calcium carbonate (CaCO3)-based coating with gamma-C2S (γ-C2S) as the main carbonatable binder is proposed to protect the metal substrate against corrosion in this paper. Here, the morphology and phase assemblage of the coatings are studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD), and the corrosion resistance of the coating is evaluated by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Results show that the carbonated coating has excellent properties in terms of ultraviolet (UV) aging resistance, salt fog resistance, and electrochemical corrosion resistance. The porosity of deposited coating on steel substrates decreases by 47.1% after carbonation due to the compacted calcium carbonate formation, which is recognized as a self-compacting process during carbonation. The coating also exhibits rapid strength development within the first 2 h of carbonation; both the CO2 uptake efficiency and degree of carbonation (DOC) can reach more than 95% of the total CO2 uptake efficiency and final DOC values. This study provides a novel insight to extend the category of inorganic coating with additional benefits of CO2 solidification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The crack and carbonation of concrete pose a great challenge to its durability. Therefore, this paper studies the effect of cracks on the carbonation depth of cement paste under different factors. The relationship between carbonation and cracks was determined, and the carbonation mechanism of cement paste with cracks was clarified. The results show that a small water–binder ratio can effectively inhibit the carbonation process. The bidirectional carbonation enlarged the carbonation area around the crack. Within 21 days of the carbonation, the carbonation depth increased with carbonation time, and the Ca(OH)2 on the surface of the specimen was sufficient, allowing for a convenient chemical reaction with CO2. The influence of crack width on the carbonation process at the crack was greater than the influence of the crack depth. Carbonation influenced the hydration of cement-based materials, altering the types and quantities of hydration products. In conclusion, accurately predicting the regularity of carbonation in cracked structures is critical for improving the durability of concrete. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recycled coarse aggregates (RCAs) are widely used as a sustainable material in the construction sector. However, the variability of the material is the main factor that limits its use in practice. This paper investigates the effectiveness of RCA selection by an air jigging process in concrete. The performance was assessed with compressive strength and durability indicators from natural and accelerated carbonation tests. The RCA used was provided by two recycling plants. Air jigging technology reduced the mortar and ceramic content in RCA; hence, it increased the strength of the jigged material relative to concrete without air jigged RCA. However, jigging RCA resulted in natural and accelerated carbonation coefficients up to 2.5 times higher than concrete made with natural coarse aggregate. The treatment of RCA by air jigging technology enhanced the properties of concrete, achieving additional benefits compared with nontreated material. Furthermore, the existing models that provide a correlation between accelerated and natural results of carbonation depth and current international standards do not apply to RCA. Therefore, modifications of these models were carried out to enhance the service life prediction of RCA concrete. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to quantitatively analyze the factors affecting the carbonation of reinforced concrete structures, the carbonation coefficient model is established based on 1834 groups of test data from natural carbonation and indoor accelerated tests in this paper. The main factors considered in the statistical model are the environmental temperature, the concentration of carbon dioxide, relative humidity, water–cement ratio, fly ash replacement, compressive strength of 28 days, curing time, compaction type, exposure to a salt environment, and environmental exposure classes. Based on the multiple nonlinear regression method, the carbonation coefficient model is fitted in two sections according to the different environmental exposures of the concrete structure. To analyze the applicability of the formula, the statistical formulas of relative humidity less than 70% and relative humidity higher than 70% are verified by the test data, and satisfactory results are obtained. Based on the quantitative analysis of the statistical model, the specific effects of relative humidity, strength, carbon dioxide content, fly ash, and curing time on concrete carbonation are clarified. The results show that the factors affecting carbonation are also different with different humidity values in the exposed environment of the concrete structure. When the relative humidity of the exposed environment is less than 70%, the parameters that have a great impact on concrete carbonation are fly ash replacement, compressive strength of 28 days, relative humidity, and the concentration of carbon dioxide. Among them, fly ash replacement, relative humidity, and the concentration of carbon dioxide can promote the carbonation of concrete. When the relative humidity of the exposed environment is higher than 70%, the parameters that have a great impact on concrete carbonation are the concentration of carbon dioxide, relative humidity, compressive strength of 28 days, curing time, and exposure classes. Only the concentration of carbon dioxide is conducive to the carbonation of concrete, and relative humidity has a very significant effect on concrete carbonation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In industrialized countries, most of the reinforced concrete (RC) structures and infrastructures have more than 40 years, since they were built around 1960 − 1980, and were designed for a service life of 50 years. Consequently, in the next years, the number of structures and infrastructures that will need to be repaired will steeply increase. Several techniques, characterized by a different durability, environmental impact and economic impact, are available for the repair of a reinforced concrete structure damaged by the corrosion of reinforcement. To help the designers in the choice of the most suitable one, a preliminary assessment of the condition of the structure is essential, aimed at diagnosing the causes of deterioration, the extent of damage, i.e. the extent of corroding reinforcement, and its evolution in time. An approach, with a wide consensus, for the evaluation of the extent of corroding reinforcement is available for carbonation-induced corrosion, whilst it is still lacking for chloride-induced corrosion. In this paper two approaches for the evaluation of the extent of corroding reinforcement for a RC structure subject to chloride-induced corrosion are presented and compared, showing similar results. These approaches can be useful to properly plan a restoration intervention as well as to assess the reliability of the recently proposed model for service life design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Calcium carbonate micro- and nanoparticles are considered as chemically inert materials. Therefore, they are widely considered in the field of biosensing, drug delivery, and as filler material in plastic, paper, paint, sealant, and adhesive industries. The unusual properties of calcium carbonate-based nanomaterials, such as biocompatibility, high surface-to-volume ratio, robust nature, easy synthesis, and surface functionalization, and ability to exist in a variety of morphologies and polymorphs, make them an ideal candidate for both industrial and biomedical applications. Significant research efforts have been devoted for developing novel synthesis methods of calcium carbonate particles in micrometer and nanometer dimensions. This review highlights different approaches of the synthesis of calcium carbonate micro- and nanoparticles, such as precipitation, slow carbonation, emulsion, polymer-mediated method, including in-situ polymerization, mechano-chemical, microwave-assisted method, and biological methods. The applications of these versatile calcium carbonate micro- and nanoparticles in the biomedical field (such as in drug delivery, therapeutics, tissue engineering, antimicrobial activity, biosensing applications), in industries, and environmental sector has also been comprehensively covered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Calcium carbonate micro- and nanoparticles are considered as chemically inert materials. Therefore, they are widely considered in the field of biosensing, drug delivery, and as filler material in plastic, paper, paint, sealant, and adhesive industries. The unusual properties of calcium carbonate-based nanomaterials, such as biocompatibility, high surface-to-volume ratio, robust nature, easy synthesis, and surface functionalization, and ability to exist in a variety of morphologies and polymorphs, make them an ideal candidate for both industrial and biomedical applications. Significant research efforts have been devoted for developing novel synthesis methods of calcium carbonate particles in micrometer and nanometer dimensions. This review highlights different approaches of the synthesis of calcium carbonate micro- and nanoparticles, such as precipitation, slow carbonation, emulsion, polymer-mediated method, including in-situ polymerization, mechano-chemical, microwave-assisted method, and biological methods. The applications of these versatile calcium carbonate micro- and nanoparticles in the biomedical field (such as in drug delivery, therapeutics, tissue engineering, antimicrobial activity, biosensing applications), in industries, and environmental sector has also been comprehensively covered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Given the fast-paced world economy, increasing carbon dioxide (CO 2) emissions have caused serious concern regarding global warming. Many studies have examined the nexus between CO 2 emissions and economic growth and inconsistent results are provided. Limited evidence suggests that different time periods under investigation could be a source of inconsistency, but there lacks of a thorough analysis. This paper systematically focuses on the evolutionary characteristics of the nexus to explore the influence of time periods. The panel data are reorganized by considering different time periods in various countries, and an intelligent data-driven approach, symbolic regression, is applied to discover models for each period without predefined structure and parameters. Three issues (Does the time period matter? What are the trends in different time periods? What are the applicable scopes of the models?) have been addressed in this paper. The results reveal the evolutionary nature of the nexus and it is verified that an intrinsic time period distinction does generate extrinsic inconsistency. The detailed dynamics of models indicate that the optimal models tend to be more complex as the time periods are extended. For countries with different locations and income levels, the applicable scopes of the four superior models (monotonically increasing, inverted U-shaped, inverted N-shaped, and M-shaped) vary in different time periods. The findings highlight that the effect of time periods cannot be ignored and the models should not be applied unconditionally when conducting empirical research. Finally, several policy implications are provided, which are critical for the balance of economic growth and CO 2 emissions, particularly in some developing countries. Highlights • The inconsistency of nexus between CO 2 emissions and economic growth is examined. • The intrinsic time period difference does generate extrinsic nexus inconsistency. • The effect of time period is verified from geographic and socioeconomic aspects. • Rich evidence is revealed for the evolutionary nature of the relationship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neutral chloride-based electrolyte and directly grown manganese oxide on carbon paper are used as the electrolyte and air cathode respectively for rechargeable Zn-air batteries. Oxygen reduction and oxygen evolution reactions on manganese oxide show dependence of activities on the pH of the electrolyte. Zn-air batteries with chloride-based electrolyte and manganese oxide catalyst exhibit satisfactory voltage profile (discharge and charge voltage of 1 and 2 V at 1 mA cm −2 ) and excellent cycling stability (≈90 days of continuous cycle test), which is attributed to the reduced carbon corrosion on the air cathode and decreased carbonation in neutral electrolyte. This work describes a robust electrolyte system that improves the cycle life of rechargeable Zn-air batteries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbonation depth involves complex physical process and interactions of multiple variables and is thus extremely complicated to predict in concrete structures. It is imperative to quantify this depth due to its vital role in the corrosion of rebars in recycled aggregate concrete (RAC). This paper developed a novel carbonation depth prediction model from a large database of 445 experimental results using artificial neural network (ANN). The relative importance and effect of the independent parameters in the carbonation depth are identified using Garson index and parametric analysis, respectively. Among all the architectures considered, the N 8-10-1 having 10 nodes in the hidden layer provided the best prediction in good agreement with experimental results. The model demonstrated superior performance relative to existing carbonation depth equations in the literature. Despite the presence of fuzziness in the data, the effect of each variable in the development of carbonation is explored in great detail. The model proposed here can provide a robust prediction of carbonation depth that can be used as a basis for assessing the structural health of recycled aggregate concrete structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Early-age carbonation curing of concrete is considered an alternative curing method that efficiently utilizes carbon dioxide to improve the performance of concrete and reduce carbon emission. Carbonation curing is commonly implemented in a pressure chamber at high pressure. The application is therefore limited only to special products such as concrete masonry units. To promote wider applications of the technology for general precast concrete with any shapes and sizes, an ambient pressure carbonation system in a flexible enclosure is needed. This paper presents a study on developing a new carbonation curing system at a curing pressure of 1.4 kPa (0.014 bar), which is considered as ambient pressure. The system includes a flexible enclosure made from a plastic sheet with a pressure-resistant zipper that can accommodate any shape and size of precast concrete products and can be made either in a factory or on a job site. Compared to the traditional high-pressure carbonation at 0.5 MPa (5 bars), which generates 12% CO2 uptake, carbonation in the ambient-pressure system at 1.4 kPa (0.014 bar), can achieve a carbon dioxide uptake of 11% with a comparable strength at both the early and late ages. Besides, the ambient pressure carbonation has shown less pH reduction and smaller carbonation depth than high pressure, which would have the advantage of protecting the reinforcing steel in concrete from carbonation-induced corrosion. Furthermore, ambient pressure carbonation-cured concretes were found to have higher compressive strength, higher surface electrical resistivity, lower porosity, and faster ultrasonic pulse velocity than normal hydration concretes at both the early and late hydration stage. Microstructure analysis indicated that carbonates were intermingled with C─ S─ H, contributing to the strength gain and performance improvement of concretes subject to ambient pressure carbonation curing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sulfate exposure at low temperatures is known to accelerate chemical deterioration in limestone cement concrete by promoting thaumasite formation. Carbonation curing as an emerging CO2 sequestration strategy converts gaseous CO2 into mineral calcite, a key species that incurs thaumasite formation in conventional limestone cements. To clarify the risk of thaumasite sulfate attack after carbonation curing, this paper presents a laboratory characterization of carbonation-cured mortars stored in a MgSO4 solution at 6°C for up to 900 days. It was found that carbonation curing suppressed mortar swelling and enhanced material mechanical integrity and dimensional stability. The mineral thaumasite and gypsum were significantly lessened after carbonation curing. The maximum longitudinal expansion of mortar bars during MgSO4 exposure was lowered from ∼0.9% to less than 0.06% by carbonation curing. The compressive strength of carbonation-cured mortars remained higher than 60 MPa whereas the noncarbonated control decreased to less than 2 MPa. Moreover, mortar critical pore diameter after MgSO4 storage decreased from 52.3 nm (noncarbonated) to 12.5–15.8 nm (carbonation-cured), with the total pore volume lowered by 9%–11% resulting from carbonation curing. The pore densification led by calcium carbonate precipitation tends to limit MgSO4 ingress and prevent mortar interior damage. It was concluded that the calcium carbonate converted from CO2 through carbonation curing did not promote thaumasite formation, and material durability with respect to thaumasite sulfate attack could be further enhanced after carbonation curing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the paper, a multi-scale experimental investigation on the occurrence of carbonation and its effect on chemo-mechanical behaviour of lime-treated soil has been presented. Carbonation affects chemo-mineralogical evolution of lime-treated soils depending on the time scale at which reaction mechanism takes place. In the short term, a progressive carbonation of portlandite is responsible for the formation of calcium carbonate with consumption of available lime for pozzolanic reactions (lime carbonation). In the long term, carbonation of the secondary phases resulting from pozzolanic reactions weakens the bonding effects induced by hydrated compounds (carbonation of secondary reaction products). Mineralogical and microstructural features of lime-treated and carbonated samples have been monitored at increasing curing times by means of microstructural analyses. Triaxial drained compression tests have been performed on treated samples cured in different conditions for short and long term. Mineralogical investigations showed precipitation of calcium carbonate for lime-treated samples exposed to atmospheric CO2 since the very short term. Exposure of lime-treated sample to CO2 after precipitation of hydrated phases favoured decalcification of cementitious compounds and formation of calcium carbonate. In both cases, precipitation of calcite relevantly affects the mechanical behaviour of lime-treated samples. From the observed behaviours, it will be possible to take into account relevant factors for performing the best practice finalized to efficient and durable soil treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A reliability-based method for identifying appropriate safety factors for use in predicting the service life (i.e., corrosion-free life) of concrete structures subject to carbonation is described in this paper. Reinforced concrete (RC) columns located in CO2-rich urban environments were investigated to estimate their service life. Carbonation depths and cover depths were measured for sound, cracked, and jointed concrete cover conditions. The measurements were used to calculate safety factors for columns subject to carbonation. Goodness-of-fit tests were used to obtain optimal probability distributions for carbonation depths and cover depths. A reliability index of 1.28, corresponding to a 10% probability of corrosion initiation, was taken as a threshold for determining the safety factor. The safety factor proposed in this paper can be used to estimate the service life of RC structures subject to carbonation. The sensitivity of the safety factor to the casting method and coefficient of variation of the cover depth were also evaluated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to investigate the distribution characteristics of the partial carbonation zone of concrete. A series of experimental carbonation tests considering the effect of external temperature, concentration of CO2 , and relative humidity were implemented. The pH values of the simulated pore solution of the powder sample of concrete are presented. The carbonation model based on the mass-transfer theory is proposed. The results indicate that the pH value of the simulated pore solution can be applied to demarcate the complete and partial carbonation zones of carbonated concrete. The numerical model can be used to preferably simulate the distribution of complete and partial carbonation zones. The length of the partial carbonation zone increases with the increase of temperature and decreases with the increase of relative humidity. The lengths of the partial carbonation zone generally increase with the increase of concentration of CO2. Concrete with a high initial diffusion coefficient is conducive to the diffusion of carbon dioxide. The length of the complete and partial carbonation zones can be sensitively affected by the activation energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The influence of two polysaccharides, native corn starch and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), on the precipitation of calcium carbonate was examined by utilizing two different carbonation processes. In a batch process, carbon dioxide gas was fed through calcium hydroxide slurry at pH 11.5 to 12.0. The reaction was complete when the pH had been decreased to 7. In a fed-batch reaction, the carbon dioxide was dissolved in water while calcium hydroxide was pumped into the water, maintaining a constant pH of 6.0±0.5. Scanning electron microscopy, particle size analysis, and specific surface area analysis were used to characterize the structure of the precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC) pigments. In application testing, the impact of modified pigments on paper properties was examined. The results showed that carbohydrates can significantly affect the crystallization of calcium carbonate, but the influence depends on the precipitation conditions and the type and concentration of the carbohydrate added. The starch-modified PCC, produced by the fed-batch reaction, improved the mechanical properties of the paper, whereas CMCmodified PCC yielded paper with good surface and optical performance but weakened strength properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Amines displayed dual functions as an alkaline reagent and the CaCO 3 regulator. • Remarkable CO 2 removal (>95 %) and CO 2 capacity (>340 g /kg) were obtained. • Promising gypsum conversion (>93 %) were obtained. • Primary/secondary amines postponed the formation of CaCO 3 and induced vaterite. • Amines were regenerated from their protonated forms by BMED. CO 2 mineralization of waste gypsum not only reduces the carbon emissions of power plants but also improves gypsum utilization by recovering high-value-added CaCO 3. However, the extensive consumption of various reagents limited its development. This paper proposed an amine-promoted waste gypsum carbonation process integrating with amine regeneration by bipolar membrane electrodialysis (BMED). The alkaline amine was expected to act as a multifunctional reagent for gypsum carbonation — alkaline reagent, CO 2 absorbent, gypsum dissolution promoter, and CaCO 3 crystal regulator. Seven typical amines with different amino types and p K a values were selected to investigate the feasibility of this process. Results show that promising CO 2 removal efficiency (>95 %) from an artificial exhausting gas, gypsum carbonation efficiency (>93 %), and CO 2 sequestration capacity (>340 g-CO 2 /kg-gypsum) can be achieved due to the additional alkalinity, fast CO 2 absorption, high CO 2 concentrations, and enhanced CaSO 4 dissolution in amine solutions. In addition, the interactions of amine-CO 2 -gypsum and the CaCO 3 growth mechanism in the gas–liquid-solid system were explored. Monoethanolamine (MEA), 3-amino-1-propanol (MPA), piperazine (PZ), and 1,3-Diaminopropane (DAP) could prolong the CaCO 3 precipitation due to their strong affinity for Ca2+ and CO 3 2−. In this case, CO 2 absorption by the liquid phase dominated the carbonation process in the initial 30 min for these four amines, while CaCO 3 precipitation mainly occurred within 30 ∼ 120 min. Amines' different affinities for Ca2+ and CO 3 2− provided an approach to selective synthesis of CaCO 3 polymorph: 100 % calcite by PZ, 100 % vaterite by DAP, a calcite-vaterite mixture by MEA, and a calcite-vaterite-aragonite mixture by MPA. After the carbonation process, amines were recycled from the liquid residue by BMED, which could provide OH− for amines regeneration from protonated amines, recovery of H 2 SO 4 , and decrease the solution salinity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract This paper presents the results of a study about the mechanical behaviour, before and after aging, of two cement-based composites reinforced with long sisal fibres cured at early age in a CO 2 environment. After curing, samples of both composite systems were submitted to wetting and drying cycles to accelerate the aging of the materials allowing the evaluating of the efficiency of the CO 2 treatment. Besides promoting CO 2 capture, the used cure also allowed the increase in the durability of the sisal fibre-cement based composites by the Calcium Hydroxide (CH) consumption and pH decrease promoted by the carbonation reactions. The lime-pozzolanic material composite was also treated with CO 2 at early stages of formation, with the carbonation and pozzolanic reactions acting simultaneously to deplete the Ca(OH) 2 thus improving its durability. Four-point bending test, thermogravimetry analysis of the matrix and SEM analysis of the fibres were done before and after aging to study the durability mechanisms of the composites. The obtained results showed that the CH free cement-based composite containing metakaolin and fly ash presented the best mechanical behaviour before and after accelerated aging. The early age carbonation of the lime-pozolan composites improved its mechanical response, before and after accelerated aging, when compared with the non-carbonated samples. The thermogravimetry test showed that the increase of the carbonation time of the reference Portland cement-based composite consumed the C S H, compromising the ductility and strain capacity of this composite family after aging. The SEM pictures showed petrified fibre effect by the migration of hydrated products after 10 and 20 cycles of ageing for this composite system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • The impact of atmospheric marine environments on concrete is studied numerically. • A multi-species transportation model is developed for marine aerosol ingress. • Chemical interactions are modelled by a hybrid thermodynamic modelling method. • The importance of modelling the carbonation-induced water release is discussed. • The degradation mechanisms behind the marine aerosol attack are revealed. Abstract This paper presents a novel and comprehensive numerical method to study the impact of the atmospheric marine environment on cementitious materials. The transportations of moisture, aqueous and gaseous substances are modelled by a multi-species transportation model. A hybrid thermodynamic modelling method is developed to consider the chemical interactions, including carbonation, chloride binding, and other simultaneous chemical reactions. The proposed method is implemented to model the reported experiments, and the detailed degradation mechanisms are revealed. Furthermore, the significances of modelling the carbonation-induced water release and the mutual influences between carbonation and chloride aerosol attack are demonstrated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]