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On 21 September 2010, heavy rainfall with a local maximum of 259 mm d occurred near Seoul, South Korea. We examined the ability of the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model in reproducing this disastrous rainfall event and identified the role of two physical processes: planetary boundary layer (PBL) and microphysics (MPS) processes. The WRF model was forced by 6-hourly National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) Final analysis (FNL) data for 36 hours form 1200 UTC 20 to 0000 UTC 22 September 2010. Twenty-five experiments were performed, consisting of five different PBL schemes-Yonsei University (YSU), Mellor-Yamada-Janjic (MYJ), Quasi Normal Scale Elimination (QNSE), Bougeault and Lacarrere (BouLac), and University of Washington (UW)-and five different MPS schemes-WRF Single-Moment 6-class (WSM6), Goddard, Thompson, Milbrandt 2-moments, and Morrison 2-moments. As expected, there was a specific combination of MPS and PBL schemes that showed good skill in forecasting the precipitation. However, there was no specific PBL or MPS scheme that outperformed the others in all aspects. The experiments with the UW PBL or Thompson MPS scheme showed a relatively small amount of precipitation. Analyses form the sensitivity experiments confirmed that the spatial distribution of the simulated precipitation was dominated by the PBL processes, whereas the MPS processes determined the amount of rainfall. It was also found that the temporal evolution of the precipitation was influenced more by the PBL processes than by the MPS processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The dilution effect caused by boundary-layer evolution over land has strong influences on air quality. Accurate and continuous measurements of the boundary-layer height over urban areas are therefore needed for complete air-quality assessments. Commercial ceilometers, in combination with reliable and simple methodologies, can be used to retrieve the mixed-layer height, and represent a means of obtaining information on vertical mixing and atmospheric structure above cities. Here, we evaluate various retrieval algorithms based on the gradient method against high-temporal-resolution radiosonde observations. Based on the results, we propose a simple algorithm by using the gradient method, the correction of background noise and the moving averages, with the minimum number of parameters that need to be adjusted to the local properties and the instrument itself. The algorithm is adjusted for Seoul, Korea, and improves the retrieval performance by reducing high-frequency noise. The algorithm is used to investigate the relationship between the evolution of the daytime mixed-layer height and air pollution under a two-layer mixing model where changes in concentration depend only on the urban boundary-layer growth and air entrainment from the free atmosphere. Using 2 months of ceilometer retrievals of mixed-layer height and air-quality data from across the city, we find strong negative correlations for primary emitted pollutants such as NO2, CO, SO2, and particulate matter smaller than 10 µm, and a modest positive correlation for O3. The results provide insight into the significant influence of urban boundary-layer evolution on Seoul's air quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]