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Background: As health profession schools implement addiction curricula, they need survey instruments to evaluate the impact of the educational interventions. However, existing measures do not use current non-stigmatizing language and fail to capture core concepts.Objective: To develop a brief measure of health profession student readiness to work with people who use drugs (PWUDs) and establish its content validity.Methods: We conducted a literature review of existing instruments and desired clinical competencies related to providing care to PWUD and used results and expert feedback to create and revise a pool of 72 items. We conducted cognitive interviews with ten pre-clinical health profession students from various US schools of nursing, pharmacy, and medicine to ensure the items were easy to understand. Finally, we used a modified Delphi process with twenty-four health professions educators and addiction experts (eight each from nursing, pharmacy, and medicine) to select items for inclusion in the final scale. We analyzed expert ratings of individual items and interdisciplinary agreement on ratings to decide how to prioritize items. We ultimately selected 12 attitudes and 12 confidence items to include in the REadiness to Discuss Use, Common Effects, and HArm Reduction Measure (REDUCE-HARM). Experts rated their overall assessment of the final scale.Results: Twenty-two of twenty-four experts agreed or strongly agreed that the attitudes scale measures student attitudes that impact readiness to work with PWUDs. Twenty-three of twenty-four experts agreed or strongly agreed that the confidence scale measures student self-efficacy in competencies that impact readiness to work with PWUDs. Seven of 72 initial items and none of the 24 selected items had statistically significant differences between disciplines.Conclusions: The REDUCE-HARM instrument has strong content validity and may serve as a useful tool in evaluating addiction education. Additional research is needed to establish its reliability, construct validity, and responsiveness to change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

March of the Living (MOTL) is a worldwide two-week trip for high school seniors to learn about the Holocaust by traveling to sites of concentration/death camps and Jewish historical sites in Poland and Israel. The mission statement of MOTL International states that participants will be able to 'bolster their Jewish identity by acquainting them with the rich Jewish heritage in pre-war Eastern Europe.' However, this claim has never been studied quantitatively. Therefore, 152 adolescents who participated in MOTL voluntarily completed an initial background questionnaire, a Jewish Identity Survey and a Global Domains Survey pre-MOTL, end-Poland and end-Israel. Results suggest that Jewish identity did not substantially increase overall or from one time period to the next. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a shared mental model (SMM) based intervention on student team mental model similarity and ultimately team performance in an undergraduate meteorology course. The team knowledge sharing (TKS) intervention was designed to promote team reflection, communication, and improvement planning. Results reveal that the TKS intervention was partially effective in enhancing student team SMM and team scores on meteorology lab assignments. The TKS intervention has potential for use in science courses where a teaming approach is used. Similar interventions could likely be developed, empirically examined, and potentially employed to promote success in handling complex challenges while working in teams in the classroom and beyond. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses how Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) can assist in increasing access to quality education and discusses how it can contribute to the content and learning methods on the Education for All (EFA) agenda. It explores both the tensions and the common ground between ESD and EFA, and identifies the potential synergies between them. ESD implies a transformation of every aspect of school life at all levels: pre-school, primary and secondary. At the policy level, governments are in a position to establish links between ESD and EFA, recognising that the purpose of education is not just to support present economic development, but also to help individuals and societies to develop their potential without damaging the environment. At the grassroots level, in schools, much can—and must—be done by school leaders, teachers and students to integrate sustainability into all aspects of school life and the curriculum, thereby establishing connections between social, environmental, cultural and economic problems and achievements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building on work examining differences in the emphasis faculty place on effective educational practices, this study uses data from nearly 8,000 faculty members from the 2007 Faculty Survey of Student Engagement to explore how disciplinary area moderates the effect of teaching a general education course (GEC) on the emphasis faculty place on deep approaches to learning. Results showed that the GEC effect was strongest in hard-applied-life fields and weakest in hard-pure-life and soft-applied-life fields, suggesting that proponents of general education reform need to temper their efforts by a clearer understanding of disciplinary differences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Educators in large-enrollment courses are faced with the challenge of effectively disseminating information to their students to ensure that they learn the content provided. A related issue involves the means by which instructors evaluate student performance. Offering effective forms of performance feedback may be one technique to provide students with additional information to facilitate learning. Accordingly, the purpose of this investigation was to determine the effects of elaborate feedback and basic feedback on student performance. Two groups from an introductory psychology course participated in the current study. The Basic Feedback Group ( N = 108) received basic feedback on all quizzes. The Elaborate Feedback Group ( N = 102) received elaborate feedback on all quizzes. Response accuracy and learning gain were evaluated between groups. Visual analyses demonstrated the relative effectiveness of elaborate feedback on subsequent student performance. Descriptive and inferential statistical analyses revealed that elaborate feedback was beneficial in general and particularly for questions that were determined to be difficult by item analyses. Results and implications are discussed in further detail. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Infusing engineering design projects in K-12 settings can promote interest and attract a wide range of students to engineering careers. However, the current climate of high-stakes testing and accountability to standards leaves little room to incorporate engineering design into K-12 classrooms. We argue that design-based learning, the combination of scientific inquiry and engineering design, is an approach that can be used to meet both K-12 educators’ and engineering advocates’ goals. This paper describes an 8-week high school curriculum unit, the Heating/Cooling System, in which engineering design is used to teach students central and difficult chemistry concepts such as atomic interactions, reactions, and energy changes in reactions. The goals of the paper are to (1) describe this successful design-based unit, (2) provide guidelines for incorporating design-based learning into other science topics, and (3) provide some evidence of its value for teaching difficult chemistry concepts and increasing interest in engineering careers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The big-fish–little-pond effect (BFLPE) predicts that equally able students have lower academic self-concepts (ASCs) when attending schools where the average ability levels of classmates is high, and higher ASCs when attending schools where the school-average ability is low. BFLPE findings are remarkably robust, generalizing over a wide variety of different individual student and contextual level characteristics, settings, countries, long-term follow-ups, and research designs. Because of the importance of ASC in predicting future achievement, coursework selection, and educational attainment, the results have important implications for the way in which schools are organized (e.g., tracking, ability grouping, academically selective schools, and gifted education programs). In response to Dai and Rinn (Educ. Psychol. Rev., ), we summarize the theoretical model underlying the BFLPE, minimal conditions for testing the BFLPE, support for its robust generalizability, its relation to social comparison theory, and recent research extending previous implications, demonstrating that the BFLPE stands up to scrutiny. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Medical educators act on the belief that students benefit from formal and informal educational experiences that foster virtues such as compassion, altruism, and respect for patients.Objective: The purpose of this study is to examine fourth year medical students' perspectives on how, where, and by whom they believe the virtues associated with good physicianhood have been taught to them.Design: Fourth year students were assigned a two- to three-page essay that asked them to reflect on how their medical education had "fostered and hindered" their conceptions of compassion, altruism, and respect for patients.Participants: All 112 students completed this assignment, and 52 (46%) gave us permission to use their essays for this study.Approach: An inductive, qualitative approach was used to develop themes derived from students' essays.Results: Students' thoughts were organized around the idea of influences in three areas to which they consistently referred. Foundational influences included parents and "formative years," religious faith, and other experiences preceding medical school. Preclinical education influences comprised formal classroom experiences (both positive and negative effects). Clinical education influences included role modeling (both positive and negative) and the clinical environment (notable for emphasis on efficiency and conflicting cues). Students' essays drew most heavily on the effects of role modeling.Discussion: Medical students arrive at our doors as thoughtful, compassionate people. Positive role models and activities to promote critical self-reflection may help nurture these attitudes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated curricular conditions and educational practices that influenced the development of life-long learning orientations among 405 undergraduate students. Results suggest that growth in life-long learning orientations was facilitated by instruction that included opportunities for reflection, active learning, and perspective-taking and that provided students with opportunities for positively interacting with diverse peers. Negative diverse peer interactions were found to stifle development. Implications for researchers and practitioners are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Just-in-Time Teaching (JiTT) technique allows students to be engaged in course material outside of the classroom by answering web-based questions. The responses are summarized and presented to students in class with a follow-up active learning exercise. College students enrolled in an introductory-level general education geoscience course were surveyed over a two-semester period on their engagement level during lecture and perceived learning of course content. Data show that students are able to reflect on their prior knowledge and construct new knowledge with weekly graded JiTT exercises. Despite increasing and competing pressures outside of the classroom, students reported increased learning and engagement in a course with required weekly assignments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Complementary degree programs arid research training are important alternative tracks in medical school that typically interrupt the traditional MD curriculum. OBJECTIVE: Examine effects of such a break on clinical knowledge after reentry into the MD curriculum. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. PARTICIPANTS: Three hundred and two graduates of Mayo Medical School. MAIN MEASUREMENTS: Compared years of delay between the second and third years of medical school with third year clerkship grades, National Board of Medical Examiner's (NBME) Subject Examinations, and United States Medical License Exam (USMLE) Step 2. MAIN RESULTS: 258, 13, and 31 students spent 0, 1, or ≥3 years pursing research between the second and third year. Baseline measures of knowledge before matriculation and before the third year were similar between groups. Whereas a 1-year delay had no significant effect, a ≥3-year delay was associated with fewer clerkship honors and lower NBME Medicine, Pediatrics, and Psychiatry percentiles compared to no delay (all p<.05). Students with a ≥3-year delay had a 77% reduction in the odds of honors in Medicine. For each year of delay beyond 3, students' third-year NBME Medicine, Neurology, Obstetrics and Gynecology, and Psychiatry scores decreased as did USMLE Step 2 scores (r=-.38 to -.50, p<.05). CONCLUSIONS: Delays of ≥3 years between the second and third years of medical school are associated with lower grades and scores on clinical knowledge tests. Further research is needed to determine the optimal timing of research training and develop effective interventions to facilitate reentry into the medical school curriculum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reports the results of a study of the sociology course in Greek secondary education. The aim is to reveal under which circumstances the course has ended up becoming one of the most downgraded courses, and more importantly, how the specific rationale of the course’s structure has resulted in the (re)production of a distorted image of the science of sociology. For that purpose, the 25-year history of the course has been analyzed from the view of: (1) the sociology curriculum’s variations over the years, (2) the underlying rationale of the official documents and the sociology textbooks, and (3) the sociology teachers’ perceptions on the course of sociology. The findings have indicated that the downgrading of the course has resulted in the devaluation of the science of sociology inside the educational community, and that through the school’s rationale (curriculum and teacher’s) a specific interpretation of sociology is being reproduced, which presents it as an everyday and simple science that deals mostly with social problems and their solutions. The ultimate result is that the sociological imagination will possibly never become part of students’ views on life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An alternating treatments design was used to assess the effects of a constant time delay (CTD) procedure and a cover-copy-compare (CCC) procedure on three students’ acquisition, subsequent maintenance, and adaptation (i.e., application) of acquired spelling words to reading passages. Students were randomly presented two trials of word lists from their respective curriculum under each condition once daily. Results suggest that both procedures were effective for helping students efficiently acquire spelling words, but the CCC condition resulted in more words learned for all participants, although less pronounced when instructional time was considered. However, the CTD procedure resulted in substantially higher levels of maintenance for Jeremy and Leon, with no significant difference between the two procedures for the Anthony. Adaptation of acquired spelling words to reading was about equal under both conditions for Anthony and Leon, while Jeremy showed higher levels of performance in the CTD procedure. Discussion focuses on discrepant results, matching instructional procedures to specific learning concerns, and directions for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By 2010 the UK government intends to widen access and provide experience of higher education to half of those aged up to 30. Unlike many institutions, University of Paisley (UP) has exceeded its individual target on access. It has done this by providing entry routes for students with ‘non-traditional’ qualifications. It is feared that low entry qualifications will adversely influence performance and progression statistics as wider access is pursued. Drawing on a student-attrition theory, performance and progression are investigated using data for students enrolling at UP for the first time in 2000. At UP non-traditional entry coincided with the enrolment of many students over 21. The relationships between age and performance and between age and progression are nonlinear and involve interactions with gender. Also, there are interactions between entry qualification and field of study. These relationships and interactions could complicate the important task of translating wider access into academic success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multiple questionnaires completed over the semester by 514 students enrolled in a first year psychology course reveal that no single pattern of reliance on print, online, or in-person resources guarantees a high mark. Analyses of the reported and measured frequency of use of various resources correlated against students’, performance on both individual assessments and their final marks suggests that students employ a range of strategies in their use of class resources. They tend to rely on their textbooks, Web-based lecture notes, and online quizzes, but their final marks are more strongly determined by their university entrance scores than by their resource use strategy, their sex, or whether or not English is their first language. The data suggest that students adapt their learning strategies to the resources available, with an apparent emphasis on learning what will be assessed rather than exploring for understanding. Importantly, the results argue that investment in development of educational technologies – and students’, use of educational technologies – must be informed by empirical data concerning its impact on the efficiency and quality of learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ‘independent learner’ is a key construct within discourses of educational policy and practice in the UK. Government policy statements stress the importance of developing learner independence, and higher education pedagogical practices tend to rest on the assumption that students are independent learners. This paper draws on research with undergraduate students in a post-1992 university to offer a critical appraisal of the discourse of the independent learner. The paper examines students’ perceptions of independence in both their first year of undergraduate study, and in the later years of their degree courses. Support for learning and issues related to asking for help are discussed. Whilst students tend to both expect and want to be independent, it is suggested that dominant constructions of the independent learner are gendered and culturally specific, and as such are inappropriate for the majority of students in a mass higher education system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As an example of design-based research, this study refined an assessment strategy for simultaneously enhancing inquiry-based learning and supporting achievement on conventional assessment measures. Astronomy Village ® : Investigating the Universe™ is a software program designed to engage secondary science students in authentic and inquiry-based learning over core topics in astronomy. The software was enhanced with a 20-hour curriculum and three levels of assessment to ensure successful inquiry experiences and high-stakes achievement. The first year implementation of Astronomy Village® yielded significant gains on a curriculum-oriented exam but not a standards-oriented test, and provided useful design insights that were integrated into the second year implementations. Significant gains were obtained on the test during the second year as well. It is expected that many existing inquiry-oriented science curricula might be similarly enhanced, and is suggested that a large-scale effort to do so might have a lasting impact on science education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At present, there is a European shortage of personnel qualified to adequately address the comprehensive scientific and regulatory requirements of the Water Framework Directive (WFD). The joint Masters programme described in this paper will provide students with the requisite expert knowledge and skills to progress the implementation of the WFD. Its development was financially supported by the European Commission because of its specific goal of producing qualified personnel in relation to the implementation of the WFD. Since its proposed structure acknowledges the educational intent of the Bologna Accord, it thereby provides a useful template for structuring a Masters degree-level programme in accordance with Bologna principles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A common finding in the literature is that institutional structures have little to no impact on student engagement and development. I argue that theory suggests peer ability (as measured by selectivity), institutional density, the differentiation of the curriculum, and the research orientation of the institution should all affect student engagement. Using the nationally representative Beginning Post-secondary Student survey, a non-linear selection on observables correction for selection bias, and a multilevel modeling approach, I find that institutional structures do affect student engagement in predictable and substantively significant ways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Learning environments overtly or implicitly address patient-centered values and have been the focus of research for more than 40 years, often in studies about the ‘hidden curriculum.’ However, many of these studies occurred at single medical schools and used time-intensive ethnographic methods. This field of inquiry lacks survey methods and information about how learning environments differ across medical schools. OBJECTIVE: To examine patient-centered characteristics of learning environments at 9 U.S. medical schools. DESIGN: Cross-sectional internet-based survey. PARTICIPANTS: Eight-hundred and twenty-three third- and fourth-year medical students in the classes of 2002 and 2003. MEASUREMENTS: We measured the patient-centeredness of learning environments with the Communication, Curriculum, and Culture (C³) Instrument, a 29-item validated measure that characterizes the degree to which a medical school's environment fosters patient-centered care. The C³ Instrument contains 3 content areas (role modeling, students' experiences, and support for students' patient-centered behaviors), and is designed to measure these areas independent of respondents' attitudes about patient-centered care. We also collected demographic and attitudinal information from respondents. RESULTS: The variability of C³ scores across schools in each of the 3 content areas of the instrument was striking and statistically significant (P values ranged from .001 to .004). In addition, the patterns of scores on the 3 content areas differed from school to school. CONCLUSIONS: The 9 schools demonstrated unique and different learning environments both in terms of magnitude and patterns of characteristics. Further multiinstitutional study of hidden curricula is needed to further establish the degree of variability that exists, and to assist educators in making informed choices about how to intervene at their own schools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report the results of a study on students' interest in physics at the end of their compulsory schooling in Israel carried out in the framework of the ROSE Project. Factors studied were their opinions about science classes, their out-of-school experiences in physics, and their attitudes toward science and technology. Students' overall interest in physics was "neutral" (neither positive nor negative), with boys showing a higher interest than girls. We found a strong correlation between students' "neutral" interest in physics and their negative opinions about science classes. These findings raise serious questions about the implementation of changes made in the Israeli science curriculum in primary and junior high school, especially if the goal is to prepare the young generation for life in a scientific-technological era. A more in-depth analysis of the results led us to formulate curricular, behavioral, and organizational changes needed to reach this goal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Relationship-Centered Care acknowledges the central importance of relationships in medical care. In a similar fashion, relationships hold a central position in medical education, and are critical for achieving favorable learning outcomes. However, there is little empirical work in the medical literature that explores the development and meaning of relationships in medical education. In this essay, we explore the growing body of work on the culture of medical school, often termed the "hidden curriculum." We suggest that relationships are a critical mediating factor in the hidden curriculum. We explore evidence from the educational literature with respect to the student-teacher relationship, and the relevance that these studies hold for medical education. We conclude with suggestions for future research on student-teacher relationships in medical education settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research on the additive interspersal procedure was extended by exposing seventh-grade students to curricula-based (e.g., educationally valid) language arts assignments. In Experiment I, each student was given a control language arts assignment containing 20 discrete target items and an experimental assignment containing 24 equivalent target items, plus eight interspersed briefer items. After working on both assignments for 10 minutes, significantly more students chose a new experimental assignment for homework. Individual analysis showed that 85% of the students preferred or chose the assignment associated with higher discrete task completion rates. In Experiment II, students completed both assignments. Results extended previous research by showing that even after expending more effort to complete the 20% more target items plus the additional interspersed items on the experimental assignments, significantly more students chose an experimental assignment for homework. Applied and theoretical implications are discussed along with limitations of the current study and directions for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an innovative approach to introducing pre-service early childhood teachers to math, science and technology education. The approach involves the creation of partnerships between pre-service early childhood and engineering students to conceive, develop, implement and evaluate curriculum in the area of math, science and technology by using robotics and the engineering design process. In this paper we first present the theoretical framework for the creation of these partnerships. We then introduce an experience done at Tufts University in which three different forms of partnership models evolved: the collaborator’s model, the external consultant’s model and the developer’s model. We also present different case studies from this experience and finally we conclude with some remarks and observations for making this work scalable and sustainable in other settings and universities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper combines the quality management principles of Deming with the educational theories of Feuerstein and Bloom in the design of a system of engineering education in which every student, on graduation, will display mastery of the subjects in the curriculum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many mathematics departments usually teach a variety of courses for students from different science departments and even from different faculties. These “service” courses are usually taught in the same way as the courses for mathematics major students. However, in science, because of the need to better analyse and interpret experimental data and the increased use of mathematical tools in chemistry and geology textbooks, it is becoming necessary to teach these science students quantitative skills beyond the scope of first year mathematics courses. This paper describes the design of a one-semester second year mathematics course, mainly for chemistry and geology students, with three specific objectives: to develop students’ ability to quantitatively analyse problems arising in their own field, to illustrate the great utility of mathematical models to provide answers to key chemistry and geology problems, to develop students’ appreciation of the diversity of mathematical approaches potentially useful in the chemical and geological sciences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The discussion forum is a significant component of online courses. Instructors and students rely on these asynchronous forums to engage one another in ways that potentially promote critical thinking, meaningful problem solving, and knowledge construction. In spite of the importance of these forums, predominantly used methods for the assessing the content and outcomes of these forums has often been limited to frequency counts and other quantitative measures. Only recently have researchers developed protocols for conducting meaningful qualitative analysis of online discussion forums. This study compares the application of two content analysis protocols for online discussion boards by applying both to the content of one-week student-led discussion. Our analysis provides a detailed description of how to use both protocols and evaluates each for its strengths and weaknesses toward the overall goal of providing educators and researchers with valid tools for assessing discussion forum content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the assessment strategies used in social-studies courses at the high-school level in Turkey and examines how teachers and students perceive them. Results indicate that short-answer tests are most frequently used to assess student performance, followed by oral tests. Multiple-choice and essay tests are also occasionally employed. Teachers tend to be satisfied with these assessment strategies, but suggest that alternative modes of assessment should also be considered. Students do not find such tests adequate for assessing their real performance in social-studies courses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deficits in spatial abilities, particularly mental rotation (MR), may contribute to women's avoidance of areas of study that rely on MR, including chemistry. Women who do experience success in chemistry may do so because they have good MR skills. We examined MR ability, assessed by the Purdue Visual Rotations Test (PVRT; Bodner and R. B. (1997)) in three groups of students: those with no college science background, those with a limited college science background that did not include organic chemistry, and those with more extensive science background including organic chemistry. Men and women with extensive background that included organic chemistry performed equally on the MR task, as did those students who had no college science background. However, men outperformed women on the MR task if they had limited science training, although this effect was mediated by the total number of chemistry courses taken. Self-reports of competence on the task were positively related to MR ability, but neither self-described effort nor other background variables (such as experience with spatial tasks and participation in athletics) were important to MR. Grades in science courses were not related to MR capability for any group of students. Our results suggest that while women often show a lesser ability with MR tasks, this deficit may not be an important contribution to women's tendency to avoid the physical sciences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article attempts to demonstrate the central importance of the undergraduate curriculum for the discipline and the profession of sociology. Attention is focused on the current state of the curriculum, which presently is viewed as dysfunctional for the discipline and the profession. The article ranges far beyond what normally are considered curriculum matters, and points to the interdependency that exists between the curriculum, the discipline, and the profession with its constituent units--individuals and collectivities. The article also proposes a fundamentally new undergraduate curriculum that calls for scholarship from teachers that would assist students to develop needed life skills, and that would incorporate teachers into the development of the discipline as an integrated body of knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents information related to books on science and geomorpholgy. A great change in the character of the books concerned with the teaching of science has taken place during the last twenty years or so. A quarter of a century ago the claims of science to a place in the school curriculum were being advocated vigorously and men of science had still to convince reigning schoolmasters that no education was complete which ignored the growth of natural knowledge. Geomorphology as a science has grown up in the railway age. A hint of what was coming might be espied in those eighteenth-century travelers who, like Gilpin, began very haltingly to display an interest in the form of landscape rather than its formalized versions.

This article presents information on the book "FAB: The Coming Revolution on Your Desktop: From Personal Computers to Personal Fabrication," by Neil Gershenfeld. The rhetorical cast of FAB is one of technofantasy and wild projection, which strangely recalls some equally extravagant medieval theological puzzles. The book arose from a popular course at MIT, "How To Make Anything," taught by Gershenfeld. It draws many students from diverse backgrounds, all enthusiastic to build, or "personally fabricate," things. From the second chapter on, one can get description of some of these objects. The trajectory that dominates FAB is the production of many types of "Hello World" artefacts. Hello World is the standard test for computer languages, can be printed out by any desktop computer hooked up to a printer.