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The paper deals with the population decline in Balkan countries in the last three decades, since 1990. It researches the scale of depopulation in the Balkans and analyses the causes and possible consequences of the population decline. It argues that the failure of imposed neoliberal economic policies in the Balkan countries in the 1990s caused deindustrialization, GDP stagnation and high unemployment rates, especially of young people. Together with the shift in values from traditional to neo-liberal ones which promote materialism, hedonism, consumerism and liberal middle-class feminism, it caused dramatic reduction in fertility (live births per woman) as well as a significant brain drain and economic emigration from the Balkan countries in the last 30 years. Depopulation is becoming a limiting factor for sustainability of Balkan societies. It imposes a long-term danger for demographic survival of these societies, and generates an array of other negative economic, social and political consequences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relative age effect (RAE) has been the subject of many studies, but no relevant literature has discussed the phenomenon of RAE in Chinese tennis. Numerous studies have demonstrated that RAE significantly contributes to brain drain and other occurrences that create inequity. This paper analyzes the birth dates and year-end rankings of all male players (N = 2697) who participated in China's junior tennis tournaments (U12, U14, U16) between 2014 and 2019 and who were selected for China's National Junior Team in 2019 and 2020; the paper classifies the birth dates into quarters and semesters. One of the research objectives of this study is to analyze whether RAE exists in Chinese junior men's tennis and whether RAE exerts an effect on athletes' performance. Differences between the observed and expected birthdate distributions were tested using chi-square statistics, and subsequent calculations were tested using odds ratios. The study found that RAE was present in all Chinese junior male tennis sports groups (p<0.001). The percentages of athletes born in the first half of the year were 56.4% (U12), 60.4% (U14), and 60.4% (U16), and the percentages of those born in the first quarter were 34.1% (U12), 36.4% (U14), and 37.1% (U16). Athletes with birth dates closer to the beginning of the year had a higher probability of achieving excellent athletic performance as a result of RAE, whereas those who were born near the end of the year had a more difficult time achieving strong athletic performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper studies the determinants of emigration from six Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries in light of the Arab Spring of 2011. The aim is to determine if the economically unfortunate events which occurred as a result of the Arab Spring, resulted in a brain drain for many countries. The paper's analysis is conducted using the Arab Transformation Project dataset of the year 2014 by employing an ordered probit model. The paper's main conclusion is that sentiments of unhappiness appear to be the primary determinant of the willingness to emigrate. Other post‐revolutionary feelings include lack of trust and political and democratic discontent, which highly encourage the willingness to emigrate. In addition, socio‐economic factors, such as being young, male, and highly educated, contribute to the willingness to emigrate. However, married individuals are less likely to consider emigration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The National Sports Academy "V. Levski" in Bulgaria is a leading educational and scientific institution in Europe for producing specialised personel in the field of Wellness & Spa tourism. The majority of graduates students (Bachelor's, Master's, or Doctoral degree) immediately find high-paying jobs abroad and leave the country. Methods: This paper aims to discuss and analyse the ongoing brain drain in the Bulgarian Wellness & Spa tourism industry. The study examines changes in values and beliefs that have significant impacts on employment, labor, and human behavior. Results: The high salaries offered to specialized personnel in the field of Wellness & Spa tourism has resulted in an annual brain drain to countries such as Europe, the USA, and the Emirates. Despite historical traditions, Bulgarian Wellness & Spa businesses are struggling due to the shortage of well-trained personnel. Discussion: This paper discusses changes in lifestyle and the underlying causes for the permanent shortage of qualified employees in the Wellness & Spa tourism industry. The negative economic impact of brain drain on Bulgaria as a tourist destination is also emphasised. Conclusion: The brain drain in the Bulgarian Wellness & Spa tourism industry is affecting operational, managerial, and scientific staff. It is essential to implement policy changes to safeguard the sector. These policies should aim to attract and retain specialized personnel, as well as offer competitive salaries and benefits. Failure to address brain drain could lead to long-term negative impacts on the Bulgarian economy and the country's Wellness & Spa industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Migration has been studied from an economic and geographical perspective, ignoring social factors such as education. Internal educational migration is a phenomenon driven by the search for better quality education and job opportunities. Internal educational migration has both individual and collective implications. Individually, students face social, political and economic challenges. Collectively, educational migration can contribute to "brain drain", where less advantaged regions lose their most skilled individuals in search of better opportunities, but this process also poses significant challenges for both individuals and regions of origin and destination. This paper seeks to analyze how internal university educational migration has been studied through a review of 119 sources that consider issues related to migration, internal educational and university migration, trajectories and students. University internal educational migration in Latin America, and especially in Colombia, is a phenomenon driven by the search for better educational quality and job opportunities. This phenomenon is related to the inefficient allocation of academic programs, the search for prestigious institutions and the poor coverage of higher education. There are very few studies that analyze factors such as the migratory trajectories of students who change cities to pursue higher education, which have been little studied in Latin America and especially in Colombia. It is crucial that more studies are conducted to fully understand the dynamics and consequences of intrauniversity educational migration and how it relates to economic, social, educational and cultural factors of students and their families, making it a likely source of research for new studies in higher education, in order to formulate policies that mitigate its negative effects and promote equitable development throughout the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The field of medicine is traditionally associated with opportunities for training and knowledge sharing through movement and travel. Nevertheless, the contemporary migration of doctors may have negative impacts on lower-income countries. Some scholars argue for active restrictions on South to North migration of medical doctors, while others consider such suggestions as an unjustified infringement on individual rights to migrate. This paper draws on mobility justice and the capabilities approach, to conceptualise the complex dynamics of international medical migration through the example of Aotearoa New Zealand. In this context, a 'brain drain' of New Zealand-trained medical doctors is partially mitigated by a 'brain gain', with more than 40% of the medical workforce having trained overseas. However, overseas-trained medical doctors follow pathways to licensing determined by the public health indicators of their countries of training. Despite an overall 'brain gain', doctors who trained in the Global South experience significantly greater barriers to registration than those who trained in Global North countries. Many are unable to work as doctors, resulting in a 'brain waste' of their knowledge, experience, and capabilities. This may relate to (post)colonial legacies and discourses of medical competencies that underscore the hegemony of the Global North, warranting further exploration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Academic mobility has been predominantly investigated as a resource for career development and progression of individuals or as a contributor to national economic growth and advancement (brain-drain/gain). Yet, despite its significance, the temporal dimensions of academic immobility/mobility remain undertheorized in academic mobility studies. By temporal, I am going beyond clock-time to include any phenomenon tied to making meaning and related to time-related changes. Drawing on Shahjahan et al.'s (2022) notion of shomoyscapes, this paper focuses on Bangladeshi faculty's experiences as an example of how a temporal lens can help illuminate the interrelationships between academic immobility/mobility and temporality to enliven scholarly understandings of such a migration process. It showcases three Bangladeshi scholars' narratives to highlight different temporal rationales, constraints, and agencies of migration among aspiring, returnee, and/or immigrant mobile scholars' experiences, which are often studied separately in academic mobility studies. It argues that a temporal lens showcases how mobility begins and continues temporally in people's lives before and/or after spatial movements (i.e., physical movements from one space to another). Such time work was interconnected with relational entanglements, constituting complex temporal landscapes (i.e., shomoyscapes) encompassing future, present, and past. It concludes with implications of a temporal lens for future academic mobility studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China's structural changes have brought new challenges to its regional employment structures, entailing labour redistribution. Until now, Chinese migration research with a forward-looking perspective and on bilateral longitudinal determinants at the prefecture city level is almost non-existent. This paper investigates the effects of job prospects on individual migration decisions across prefecture boundaries. To this end, we created proxy variables for wage and employment prospects, introduced reference-dependence to a dynamic discrete choice model, and estimated corresponding empirical specifications with a unique quasi-panel of 66,427 individuals from 283 cities during 1997–2017. To address multilateral resistance to migration resulting from the future attractiveness, we exploited various monadic and dyadic fixed effects. Multilevel logit models and two-step system GMM estimation were adopted for the robustness check. Our primary findings are that a 10% increase in the ratio of sector-based employment prospects in cities of destination to cities of origin raises the probability of migration by 1.281–2.185 percentage points, and the effects tend to be stronger when the scale of the ratio is larger. Having a family migration network causes an increase of approximately 6 percentage points in migratory probabilities. Further, labour migrants are more likely to be male, unmarried, younger, or more educated. Our results suggest that the ongoing industrial reform in China influences labour mobility between cities, providing important insights for regional policymakers to prevent brain drain and to attract relevant talent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Promoting innovative capabilities in Small and Medium Scale Enterprises (SMEs) is crucial if African countries are to progress in terms of being active in the Global Value Chain (GVC) and achieve inclusive development. Enhancing innovative capabilities in the Information Communication Technology (ICT) sector has been identified as strategic to Nigeria tapping into the GVC and deepening industrial sustainable development. Despite increasing awareness that enhanced innovative capabilities can foster the integration of SMEs into the GVC, there still exists scanty evidence of SMEs' innovative capabilities, especially in the ICT sector and software sub-sector in Nigeria. This paper broadly explores SMEs' innovative capabilities in the ICT–Software Incubator sub-sector in Lagos metropolis. Specifically, the paper seeks to understand what limits SMEs' innovative capabilities and the kinds of government support required to mitigate the effects of these factors. The study used 200 SMEs and 10 key incubator hubs operating in the sub-sector as a case study as well as in-depth interviews with the owners/managers. Our findings show that there is improvement in the software sector's knowledge and development and its value chain in the country; most businesses copy innovative concepts from abroad, adopting about 30% local innovation content due to the high demand for foreign software innovations by clients; overall most incubation hubs are underperforming in their core services to incubating firms; and poor educational infrastructure, brain drain and poor support from the government are key challenges facing the sector. We recommend a strong peer review among the innovation hubs and a check on the brain drain in the sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper analyzes the tax relief for employment of new residents. In the first two parts, there is a legal analysis of Art. 15c of the Law on Personal Income Tax and Art. 15a of the Law on Contributions for Mandatory Social Insurance. Then, this tax relief will be examined in the context of the principles of tax law and public finance, especially the principle of tax fairness, the principle of tax efficiency and the principle of the stability of the tax system. The conclusion is that the problem of the outflow of highly skilled workers could not be solved by partial reforms of tax laws. A systematic solution implies a radical reform of the personal income tax, which would be firmly based on the principles of tax law and tax science. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of the study was to estimate the generation of direct and indirect employment by qualification level in the sectors of the city of Maringá, as well as the export effect of jobs to the other municipalities in the state of Paraná and the rest of Brazil for the year 2018. Identifying those sectors of the production chain that export jobs the most can be a strategically important tool for promoting and fostering regional development using the input-output methodological framework. The results showed that the largest shares in the total employment of the Maringá economy were in the sectors (19) Services, (15) Commerce, (20) Public Administration, (16) Transportation, and (11) Food Industry. The acquisition of inputs from outside the region of origin resulted in higher values of job export effect for the sectors (11) Food Industry, (1) Agriculture, (9) Textile Industry, (8) Chemical and Pharmaceutical Industry, and (6) Pulp, Paper, and Printing. In this regard, more detailed studies can be conducted to assess the feasibility of developing the capacity to provide inputs that were previously imported in the municipality. The research results can be used by the education sector (public and private) to tailor the supply of qualified labor to reduce the occurrence of brain drain from the municipality or the need to attract professionals from other locations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is an increase in the high level of corruption in Africa. Consequently, the continent is labelled: third world, underdeveloped and developing, despite Africa's endowment in human and natural resources. Political commentators dubbed 'dark continent', and 'failed states' to describe Africa. Therefore, this paper adopts Cressey's Fraud Triangle Model to explore corruption drivers such as; pressure, opportunities, and rationalisation. It argues that polygamy, extended family, unrealistic goals, and lavish lifestyle(s) contribute to corrupt practices. Moreover, conceiving an idea that one cannot be caught during a fraudulent act and the ability to justify corrupt practices were identified. Further, exploration reveals that even prostitution is far better than corruption since the former only 'kills' individuals, but the latter is 'genocide' and kills the masses. Corruption 'slaughter and murder' aspirations and dreams of citizens discourage investors and FDI. Skilled labours leave the country, which causes brain drain and plunges the country into underdevelopment. The paper further argues that the UN conventions of 2005, which aims to fight corruption, institutions and organisations such as the Mo Ibrahim Foundation, Transparency International, World Bank and other watchdogs and agencies against corruption should spread their tentacles to curb and ameliorate corrupt practices on the continent. Good governance, media freedom, democracy and democratisation principles such as rule of law, checks and balances, separation of powers and transparency, probity and accountability should be nurtured and rooted in Africa. The paper maintains that implementing such suggestions can take Africa to the next level of economic growth and development. This paper adopted sampling desktops research. Therefore, the paper recommends that anti-corruption institutions should be strengthened, and media and whistleblowers must be urged to voice corrupt practices at appropriate channels. Adhering to these measures, it is likely African continent may witness her share of economic growth and development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Migration from south to north nowadays is becoming unprecedented and alarming. Earlier scholars classified drivers of migration into push and pull factors. Modern trends of migration cannot be limited to push and pull factors. Regards, the Foresight conceptual framework on migration is adopted to explain determinants of modern migration. The study aims to identify trends and patterns of earlier and modern drivers of migration and to reveal contributions of migrants to origin countries. The paper adopts sampling methods of desktop research, relevant journals and magazines on migration gathered for the write-up. Findings revealed that in the olden days, migrations were mainly driven by push and pull factors; however, modern days drivers comprise macro (push and push) factors such as; unemployment, noneconomic, and environment. Meso drivers are distances, social networks, technologies and Diasporas links. Micro reasons are age, sex, attitude, education and marital status. These factors are considered before whether to migrate or not. The paper argues that migration can result in brain drain, and can also lead to brain gain. The skilled workers lost from developing to developed countries return home, establish businesses, and train non-migrants. Remittances flow to origin countries are used for development. However, some scholars view remittances as causes of inflation, termed it ‘Dutch disease’. The paper concludes that in earlier days, when meso and micro factors were not there as drivers of migration, they now play significant roles in migration. Therefore, it is recommended that good governance and democratic principles be revamped and rejuvenated in the global south to ensure economic growth and development which will ameliorate migration to the Western world for seeking greener pastures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines self-accounting views of health sector corruption in the midst of COVID-19 outbreak in Enugu and Anambra States, Nigeria. Using a qualitative research approach, a sample of 36 respondents was drawn from Anambra and Enugu States. The purposive sampling technique was used to reach the respondents. In-depth interviews were the instrument for data collection. Findings confirmed that corruption in the health sector has created institutional mistrust and a formidable foe in the fight against COVID-19 outbreak in Nigeria. The paper recommends the need for packages and incentives for healthcare professionals to be made adequate and equivalent to the global west, which will also help avert the brain drain in the sector. In addition, the paper recommends that the Nigerian people should stop being apathetic in their engagement with public office holders. A citizenry that does not engage its leadership will not receive the best of leadership, since constantly engaging public office holders and constructively questioning policies and actions can improve the nation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of the world economy and deepening globalisation lead to intensifying migration processes globally. European Union is the destination country for a significant part of migrants which has a crucial impact on the member-states economies influencing the labour market competitiveness. The goal of the current paper is to estimate the effect of immigration, emigration and migration of asylum seekers on the labour market indicators - unemployment and average annual wage and labour market competitiveness, in selected EU member-states. To achieve the article's primary goal, we use the method of panel data analysis on yearly data from 2003 to 2019. We developed a fixed-effects model for unemployment and a random effects panel data econometric model for wages to estimate the significance of migration processes for labour market indicators. The results show that the immigration of migrants with high qualifications and high skills has a significant positive impact on the labour market of the recipient country leading to a higher competitiveness. In contrast, the increase in the number of asylum applicants has a slight negative impact, hence harming the competitivesness of the country. On the other hand, the rise in emigration negatively impacts the labour market of the donor country as a result of the "brain drain" leading to a lower competitiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the contemporary relationship between international student migration and diaspora formation. It argues that international students have been largely absent from recent discussions of 'knowledge diasporas', where migrants' 'home' states attempt to harness and co-opt the skills and knowledge of their émigrés. This is surprising, given students' evident role in knowledge circulation and exchange. In this paper, we foreground the significance of international students but also explore their relationship to diaspora formation from a different angle. We argue that some states are increasingly engaging in (sometimes seemingly contradictory) policies designed to obstruct overseas diaspora formation, and these policies centre on their international student populations. Through a number of case studies and drawing on the secondary literature, we demonstrate the ways in which states are strategising to repatriate international students following their studies overseas. More broadly, we argue, this represents an alternative to popular notions of brain circulation and knowledge diasporas, chiming with a far more long-standing concern with 'brain drain'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A novel spatial general equilibrium model was constructed and the impact of air pollution on urban residents' welfare in China was studied. • Empirical study shows air pollution significantly reduces urban residents' welfare and migration cost reduces the negative impact of air pollution on the welfare of urban residents. • Policy suggestions suggested that air pollution should be balanced against the welfare of residents, and should not be cleaned up by "one size fits all" in the early stages of economic development. Air pollution and its effects are important issues of human society. However, few literatures on the effect of air pollution on urban residents' welfare considered the cost of migration. This paper constructs a novel spatial general equilibrium model and studies the impact of air pollution on urban residents' welfare in 274 cities at and above the prefectural level in China from 2007 to 2017, and investigates the role of migration costs. The theoretical analysis and empirical research show that air pollution has a significant negative impact on the welfare of residents. Further, the simulation results indicate that the reduction of migration cost and the improvement of air quality accounts for roughly 24.65% improvement of resident's welfare from 2007 to 2017 in China. Another conclusion is that there is an inverted U-shaped relationship between resident's welfare and air pollution. On another side, migration costs play a moderating role in the impact path of air pollution on residents' welfare. When the migration costs fall, it will help residents to move out of cities with poor air quality and improve the resident's welfare. The policy suggestions are as follows: (1) In the process of sustainable development, local governments need to coordinate the phased characteristics between air pollution and residents' welfare, effectively improve the livable degree of city and urban economic sustainability, and prevent the brain drain caused by excessive migration of residents. (2) Local governments should lower the migration costs between cities by deepening the reform of the household registration system, so as to promote the free flow of labor and ultimately improve the welfare of residents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to explore the spatial heterogeneity of internal migration in China and to discuss the influence of economic, social and environmental characteristics on this demographic process. The overall results suggest that migration in China occurred from inland to coastal areas and from rural areas to urban areas. By stepwise regression, we identified that 9 out of 15 factors with potential influence on internal migration were retained, and the multicollinearity among them was reduced. In addition, we used the OLS and GWR regression analysis to discuss the global and local effects of relevant factors on internal migration. Economic scale (GDP), population concentration (population density) and demographic dividend (labour force proportion) were the three main driving forces of internal migration. In turn, internal migration further widened the gap of economic scale, population agglomeration and demographic dividend between counties and cities. Internal migration in southern coastal areas of China was most affected by economic aspects and demographic dividend. In the central China, the population was more concentrated in high-density cities, while in the eastern regions, areas with high level of education were conducive to immigration, thus forming talent reserve highlands. In the west, areas with highly educated level faced out-migration, which might cause brain drain and widen further the gap in talent reserves between the east and the west in China. From the perspective of location, the net immigration of the provincial capital was accompanied by the net immigration of the surrounding area, which was conducive to the formation of city clusters or urban sprawl. On the other side, the net immigration in prefecture-level cities often meant the net out-migration in surrounding areas. The correlation is particularly strong in eastern coastal provinces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Does investing in the development of rural communities exacerbate or ameliorate spatial inequalities between urban and rural areas? developments, such as expansion of national transportation networks, could have two plausible effects with respect to inequality: integration with urban areas could prompt outmigration and brain drain, or it could attract additional investment to towns and villages. Drawing on data from three waves of the China Family Panel Studies, this paper explores how the expansion of long-distance bus stations contributed to the development trajectories of rural China. By leveraging an inductive approach using mixture models, I find that expansion of transportation networks result in two contradictory processes: in some villages, expanded long distance bus travel prompts migrants who would otherwise have stayed in their villages to migrate, while in others would-be migrants stay home. Analysis finds that the outward 'brain drain' effect is strongest in relatively poor and remote villages. Taken together, these findings suggest that local development differentially impacts rural regions, favoring those who were already ahead and accelerating the decline of villages that had already been struggling. These findings point to the importance of understanding heterogeneity within spatial processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper studies the impact of international labor migration on human capital investment in both hosting and sending countries using an integrated theoretical framework. We develop a two-country dynamic stochastic general equilibrium human capital investment model with international labor mobility, in which both decisions to migrate and to invest in skill acquisition are endogenous. We show that the human capital formation process in the countries of origin is very sensitive to migration policies implemented by hosting countries. Our findings show that human capital accumulation in the sending country is encouraged by the possibility of emigration to higher labor productivity countries, supporting the recent view of the 'brain gain' hypothesis. Productivity shocks hitting the hosting country reduce the human capital investment by natives but increase the human capital investment in the sending country when migration is allowed. Finally, we find that migration increases world human capital, increasing the stock of human capital in both hosting and sending countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Investment in human capital is fundamental to the resilience and sustainable development of a country. Notwithstanding traditional models of human capital which define it as a stock of knowledge, skills, experience and other attributes embodied in the ability to perform work so as to produce economic value, contemporary views of the concept have shifted their recognition from a purely economic to a more encompassingly humanistic connotation of human capital. This redefinition has resulted in the introduction of more complex and multifaceted global metric tools such as the Human Capital Index and Human Development Index, each envisaged to promote a broader and more holistic understanding of a country's rate of development. Since its thrust into statehood in 1991, North Macedonia's own efforts towards building a progressive economy have been perpetually plagued by the challenge of forming, retaining and sustaining human capital. This paper provides a brief investigative overview of three key driving issues facing the country's human capital development, namely the complex nexus of poor academic standards, labour market supply/demand mismatch, and brain drain. It contends that damaging policies prioritising access over quality in higher education, credentialism, lack of labour market absorption, high youth unemployment and staggering talent flight rates are inextricably linked in a causal chain leading to the country's persistent problems in securing human capital. The paper concludes that future policies need to combine specific and practical implementation scenarios and be unequivocally committed to sustainable human capital development as a fundamental prerequisite to building a prosperous, resilient and flexible society able to adapt to new challenges and to respond by tapping into a sound value system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents the implications of the brain drain phenomenon in Romania, focusing on possible solutions at European, national and local level. The consequences of the brain drain phenomenon as well as the magnitude of the problem in Romania were analysed based on a quality methodology, namely the secondary analysis of statistical data, all in correlation with other concepts such as trust, vulnerability and resilience. Although there are still no analytical indicators to accurately measure them, the conclusions and recommendations that have been made showed that a bottom-up approach to highlighting the solutions already implemented can be seen as a future model for brain drain analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building on empirical material gathered in Haiti, this paper advances a new and innovative understanding of the internal brain drain phenomenon—the poaching of local skilled workers by international organisations (IOs) or international non‐governmental organisations (INGOs)— by conceptualising it as an equilibrium. This equilibrium is composed of two sets of tensions: (i) those between the salary conditions in the public sector and those on offer to local personnel working for IOs and INGOs; and (ii) those inherent in the dual salary scale used by IOs and INGOs for local and international staff. These two sets of tensions contribute in their specific ways to international migration, and, as such, the internal brain drain has a bearing on external brain drain dynamics. In addition, the paper addresses the difficult policy choices facing development and humanitarian organisations, since every set of policies that impacts on one side of the equilibrium is bound to affect its other side. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South Africa over the years has been losing a considerable number of teachers and this has become a growing concern among policymakers. Therefore, the objective of this paper is to identify the factors that are responsible for enticing teachers to migration out of South Africa. Using a strict textual analysis of the relevant literature, this paper reveals that South Africa has failed to reduce the emigration of teachers due to poor salaries and working conditions, subsequently, this has seen as agents from developed countries (recently Asian countries) aggressively recruiting teachers from the country. Other factors include poor infrastructure and limited career progression opportunities. The study showed that the brain drain of teachers results in a shortage of teachers in rural areas and increased inefficiency in the public educational system. It is therefore suggested that the government should make the retention of teachers a priority through incentives such as promotion, better salaries and the upgrading of infrastructure. The study concluded that teacher emigration has been a long-existing issue in South Africa and the mere fact that there has been no clear cut plan on how to deal with it is deeply worrying, moreover, today in South African schools, the issue of security has become a focal point, the failure to guarantee the safety of teachers in schools has been seen as a new factor encouraging migration either within the country or abroad. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the experiences of middle class Indian migrants to New Zealand. Using qualitative data from interviews with this under-researched group the paper analyses their migratory strategies, labour market experiences and reasons for choosing New Zealand over other potential destinations. In the New Zealand labour market they experience an under valuation of their Indian qualifications, and interviewees reported taking low level service employment, and only sometimes progressing to middle class forms of employment. In addition, data from the interviews suggests that there is evidence of a 'brain drain' from India to New Zealand rather than a circulation of talent that has been the focus of recent theories. Unlike other studies of migration of highly qualified Indian labour this study finds that they are attracted by the environment and family friendly lifestyle of New Zealand as marketed by the New Zealand government to potential immigrants. Contrary to many previous studies, the findings suggest that migration is a family rather than an individual strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Creative regions contribute to a higher standard of living, are attractive to start-ups, create new jobs, reduce brain drain and attract applicants for university education. The paper aims to compare selected indicators of implementation of start-ups and creative potential in the regions of Slovakia at NUTS 3 level and to quantify their mutual relationship. Benchmarking of 8 Slovak NUTS 3 level regions is based on 2 comparisons, namely: 6 indicators of start-ups implementation (frequency of start-ups, creation of radical innovations, employment in fast-growing companies, venture capital awareness, crowdfunding awareness and possibilities of counselling in the implementation of start-ups) and 6 indicators of creative potential (openness and diversity, human capital, cultural environment, technologies, institutional environment and creative outputs). Numerical values of these indicators are obtained from secondary research studies – e. g. modified Slovak Creative Index, Regional Innovation Scoreboard, Slovak Start-up Report and websites of innovation incubators and crowdfunding platforms. To obtain the true values of these criteria, the analysis of secondary data – desk research and the method of pairwise comparison with 91 respondents (students of Slovak universities of economic orientation with Slovak or Ukrainian nationality) was used to determine the real significance (weights) of the criteria. According to pairwise comparison, the most important indicator of start-up implementation is possibilities of counselling and the most important indicator of creative potential is creative outputs. Consequently, the relationship between the two comparisons is quantified. The global benchmark based on the implementation of start-ups is the Bratislava region, as well as in the case with creative potential. There is a strong correlation (85.5 %) between the scores of the compared regions. The final ranking of the 5 regions out of 8 in both comparisons is also the same. The theoretical contribution is extending of the issue of benchmarking from traditional understanding (products, services, processes) to spatial understanding (region). The main practical contribution of the paper is to identify the weaknesses of each of the compared regions through benchmarking. Its implementation can be the basis for the development of regional strategies and the introduction of new study programs at universities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper and accompanying map aim on the issue of brain drain (otherwise known as Human Capital Flight) concerning cultural and creative industries. The study is focused on the evaluation of Olomouc city, Czechia. In the case of a mid-sized city such as Olomouc, human capital flight is largely associated with cultural and creative fields, because it plays a significant part of the economy and character of the city. The 'brain drain index' of Czech municipalities has been calculated and visualized within the synthetic map. The study supported by a map investigated the brain drain from the local university. Moreover, four analytical side-maps which present the most important phenomena used for the Brain Drain Index calculating, and one side-map which summarizes the results of the questionnaire survey, have been visualized. The map layout is extended by description, table and a scheme which characterize the individual steps of the workflow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents an invitation to submit a paper about brain mobility, brain drain, and brain concentration. List of other topics; Deadline for submission of complete papers.

The arena of 'English-Speaking International Schooling' continues to grow, reaching almost 12,000 schools in 2020. The growing teaching arena attracts 30,000 new entrants each year and continues to be dominated by British-trained teachers. Little is actually known about the motives or subsequent experiences of this body. However, the narrative about this 'brain-drain' tends to be negative and condescending, referring to teachers 'fleeing' Britain and 'escaping' neoliberal performativity and accountability, and finding 'refuge' overseas. The reality is that many may enter an equally difficult, insecure, and precarious environment. This paper explores the emergent terrain and shows how it has changed over time, revealing the reality of teaching in a new arena of profit-driven activity in mainland China, aimed mainly at local Chinese parents. A resultant new narrative is proposed, based upon positive notions of 'resistance' and 'self-care', which helps to explain why the exodus tends (at present) to be largely one-way. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Calls for papers on brain mobility, brain drain, and brain concentration to be published in the journal "Globalisation, Societies and Education."

In this paper, we investigate the long-term effects of climate change on the mobility of working-age people. We use a world economy model that covers almost all the countries around the world, and distinguishes between rural and urban regions as well as between flooded and unflooded areas. The model is calibrated to match international and internal mobility data by education level for the last 30 years, and is then simulated under climate change variants. We endogenize the size, dyadic, and skill structure of climate migration. When considering moderate climate scenarios, we predict mobility responses in the range of 70–108 million workers over the course of the twenty-first century. Most of these movements are local or inter-regional. South–South international migration responses are smaller, while the South–North migration response is of the "brain drain" type and induces a permanent increase in the number of foreigners in OECD countries in the range of 6–9% only. Changes in the sea level mainly translate into forced local movements. By contrast, inter-regional and international movements are sensitive to temperature-related changes in productivity. Lastly, we show that relaxing international migration restrictions may exacerbate the poverty effect of climate change at origin if policymakers are unable to select/screen individuals in extreme poverty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the relationship between the politics of Higher Education access pertaining to longstanding practices of patrimonial authoritarian politics and the narration of collective trauma. Building on an empirical study of Syrian HE during war, we suggest that a narrative disjuncture within HEIs has a damaging impact not only upon the educational process, HE reconstruction and reform, but also upon the possibility of social reconciliation. This is especially true when access to education and post-graduation opportunities are directly linked to patrimonial favouritism; widespread social inequalities in access and retention; a violent turn in the purging of oppositional academics; a severely exacerbated brain drain linked to political views; and significantly sparser employment opportunities. Building on the study findings, we show how these challenges are linked to ethico-political positioning vis-à-vis the mass movement of 2011 and related cultural trauma narratives. In closing, we suggest that understanding the relationship between HE access and cultural trauma can inform decision-making on HE reconstruction and future reform. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Post-independence Africa saw many of its talented nationals leaving the continent for greener pastures aboard. Though their exit was a huge loss to the continent, one major contribution of these emigrants to Africa's development is their remittances. In the paper's view, remittances' impact to Africa's development can only be effective depending on their prudent use and management. The paper assessed two categories of remittance recipient countries in Africa wherein remittances constituted a large percentage of GDP and those who receive higher sums of remittances. In each category, the paper evaluates their human development profile against other African countries and concludes that to be effective in implementing the continent's development agenda, human development and prudent management of remittances should be the measure in determining remittances' impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 'global race for talent' has drawn immense attention from academics, policy-makers and the media. China is on both sides of the race. On the one hand, rapid economic growth has created the opportunity for many affluent and middle-class families to send their children abroad for higher education while stimulating intense internal migration for education and/or career opportunities. On the other hand, to affirm its (re-)emergence as an economic giant, China has begun recruiting talent from abroad, gradually forsaking its traditional role as a brain-drain country to become an exemplar of brain circulation. This paper elaborates an 'intellectual migration' conceptual framework that asserts both higher-education and highly skilled migration is a dynamic process that occurs along a spectrum where migration stages intersect with life transitions. Arguing that intellectual migration should be analysed as a continuum, we provide evidence from our own empirical work and the literature to ascertain its relevancy and applicability to China at this juncture and suggest a more integrative approach to analysing the framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Gelmini reform implemented in Italy in 2010 was designed to ensure greater efficiency and effectiveness within the higher education (HE) sector. The reform was implemented in a climate of general austerity, which caused severe cuts in public funds for the university system. This paper documents the unintended consequences of the reform in terms of a dramatic reduction in the number of job positions, career speed, and remunerations for academic staff – which we describe as the 3Ls, i.e. Less staff, Later careers, Lower salaries. While the loss of wages cumulated is approximately equal to the average mortgage value for buying a house, the cost savings of the government are negligible, especially when compared to the adverse effects generated by the austerity reform. The profound inequality in the application, at the expense of younger and qualified faculties, mostly women, may lead to a long-lasting and irreversible consequences such as a loss of qualification and competitiveness for the whole HE system, as shown by the increasing phenomenon of brain drain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent Southern European migration is characterised by important flows of higher-skilled young persons. The balance between the risk of a new brain drain and brain waste and the opportunity of brain gain depends on how the young migrants integrate into the labour market of destination, the new abilities they acquire and the possibilities of re-integrating into the labour market of origin, in case of return migration. In this paper we discuss the contribution of international youth mobility to the development of human capital. We focus on the individual gain in origin countries/regions generated by circulation and return and concentrate on total human capital. Our results – based on 120 in-depth interviews conducted in Italy and Spain, in both core (Rome and Madrid) and peripheral (Apennines and Andalusia) areas, with young students and lower- and higher-skilled workers – show that both Italians and Spaniards have acquired soft skills and these informal and tacit competences are considered to be as important as formal and explicit ones. For young Italians, brain circulation predominates and the human capital gained during migration results in better employability and earnings; for young Spaniards, circulation and return are more difficult in spite of their enriched human capital. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the most contemporaneous topics of discussion in the Republic of North Macedonia is youth migration, with a special emphasis on the Albanian youth. This concern has increased exponentially since most of the ones leaving are the ones with university education; even the most elite part of them, causing an effect of brain drain. The aim of this paper was to estimate and detect the determinants of this phenomenon. For this purpose, we conduct a survey of Albanian students studying in the three biggest universities where teaching is conducted in albanian language in the Republic of North Macedonia. For the obtained data to be relevant, the selection of the faculties, study programs, as well as the number of students for each year were taken into account in the conception of the sample, with the purpose of reflecting the composition of Albanian student population. Our findings suggest that Albanian students have high expectations for the improvement of the situation in the Republic of North Macedonia, after the NATO membership, but they do not expect the country to become an EU member in the near future. The results from the survey suggest that the main reason for youth emigration is the lack of perspective and bad government policies. Importantly, our findings suggest that material status is closely related to the determination of students to remain or flee the country. More specifically, students from lower income households are more inclined to leave the country at the first given chance. Furthermore, we detect a difference in the push factors between the students from technical sciences and philology students. Lastly, the findings of the survey suggests that patriotism for the country is declining, or that the connection to the homeland is fading. The findings suggest that policy makers should undertake urgent measures to combat corruption and nepotism which we identify as the main reason for the emigration of Albanian youth and accelerate the steps towards the integration processes because it is the only factor that may retain them home, if accompanied by positive economic effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The focus of this paper is on an attempt to quantify economic losses due to ongoing and vast brain drain emigration from Serbia. We claim that socio‐economic losses in terms of implicit and explicit costs related to upbringing and education of emigrants as well as lost production are paramount. Therefore, the main argument is in line with pessimistic stances on migration and its effect on Serbian development. Massive emigration, especially of educated individuals, results in a great number of incalculable deficits for the country, which cannot be expressed and measured in monetary terms only. The authors argue that these are even more striking when viewed from a holistic perspective factoring in demographic, social, political, cultural and intellectual impacts. It is also shown how emigration of the highly educated greatly undermines local democracy and social cohesion in Serbia. Nevertheless, the authors also take note of contemporary transnational perspectives on migration and development and present possible policies aimed at exploiting advantages of human capital and social networks of migrants and diaspora, circular mobility and returns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The major thrust of this paper is to interrogate the impact of the brain drain and skilled labour migration on Africa's socio-economic development since the 1990s. Although, prior to the 1990s, a number of Africans had voluntarily migrated and settled in the overseas, most especially in the western hemisphere, the phenomenon became unprecedented in the period between the 1990s and 2000s. This development was facilitated by a combination of factors, which could be summed up as push and pull factors of international migration. While low living standards, political persecution, insecurity and lack of opportunities to utilise skills among others are the main push factors, higher wages, job opportunities, relatively good working conditions, freedom from political oppression, relaxation of immigration policies and the phenomenon of new globalisation constitute the main pull factors. The main destinations of these "economic migrants" are the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and Europe. Drastic reduction in African scholars, poor delivery of basic healthcare and health programmes, lack of efficient utilisation of external assistance and low level of institutional capacity building are the main effects of the loss of highly-skilled African migrants on Africa's development. The paper argues that it is practically impossible to achieve a meaningful development in a society that loses its "best brain" to "forced international migration". It, therefore, submits that African leaders must be alive to the promotion of good governance in order to save the fragility of African states from collapsing. The methodological approach adopted in this paper is historical, analytical and descriptive, utilising materials from the secondary sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper studies how international trade affects emigration in developing countries. This is a new aspect as previous studies investigated the impact of immigration on trade from host countries perspective. However, there are also reasons to believe that trade may affect the propensity to emigrate in the home countries, leading to potential brain drain in developing countries, especially given the theoretical hypothesis in Stolper–Samuelson (S–S) theorem within Heckscher–Ohlin (H–O) factor-proportion model that more educated workers are more likely to emigrate due to an increase in international trade. When low-skill abundant developing countries liberalize trade, the reward of the scarce factor (skilled labor) is reduced in these countries, but it increases in the high-skill abundant developed countries. Therefore, skilled workers in the developing countries see a strong incentive to migrate to developed countries. To test this hypothesis, this paper utilizes a panel of 133 developing countries for the period of 1980–2010 and finds that high-skilled workers are more likely to emigrate with trade while there appears to be no effect of trade on low-skilled workers. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The engagement of young people in politics and their involvement in policy-making is of particular importance and has always been one of the most important conditions for achieving participatory democracy, as well as the uninterrupted development of society in general. This is especially true for countries in transition, such as the countries of the Western Balkans, where a new yet dysfunctional democratic system has been installed, where even today there are different ideologies and not well defined. Moreover, stagnation in terms of social and economic development, environmental development and the creation of favorable conditions for employment and advancement of young people have caused these countries to face a lack of political interest in young people, loss of interest in staying there, and their escape outside, a phenomenon known as brain drain. On the other hand, the development of information technology in recent years creates new opportunities for the engagement of young people and their organization through various social networks. Recently, political parties have also noticed the potential of these networks, which combined with the skills and knowledge of young people give the right advantage in the conditions of an electoral race. However, all this takes place at a social cost which sometimes poses a risk in terms of security, respect for the law and deviance among young people, accompanied by hate speech and inadequate institutional and legal preparation by the state. For this reason, these points will also be the focus of this paper, through which we will try to shed some light on this not very researched field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brazil is one of the countries with the highest rate of highly qualified immigrants living in the OECD region. This migration, more recently called diaspora, can have effects on the country's development. This paper focuses on a specific part of this diaspora, the talents in the Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) field in the United States and in the United Kingdom, and seeks to analyze its volume, selforganized initiatives and engagement policies of the Brazilian government. The use of the term diaspora for the migration of highly qualified individuals has evolved over time, moving from the brain drain idea to the perception of the positive effects of the insertion of talents in international knowledge networks. The materials used were: review of the specialized literature; analysis of secondary databases (mainly demographic censuses); semi-structured interviews with professionals from the Observatory of International Migration and two workshops with diasporas in the United States and United Kingdom, along with the Embassies in Washington and London, respectively. There are limitations to estimate the number of talents in the Brazilian STI diaspora, intensified by the exclusion of questions on international migration from the 2020 Census. The policies mobilized by the Brazilian government are still embryonic, still focused on mapping and on generic engagement. Mapped diaspora initiatives have a relative degree of organization, but concrete mechanisms are lacking to organize and channel this diaspora potential into policies with a "high resolution" design, articulating cooperation and engagement around specific national problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years a considerable amount of attention has been directed to the migration of tertiary educated people. Social scientists are interested in the brain drain phenomenon, in order to understand the positive and negative effects of highly-skilled migration in the sending countries. This paper examines physician migration in Romania, a country which records in Europe one of the largest stocks of emigrated medical doctors in the last few decades. Using data from official statistics, a survey carried out among Romanian medical doctors who have migrated, as well as innovative data from LinkedIn, we provide detailed evidence on the emigration flows and trends of Romanian physicians in terms of destinations, specialties and time frame of emigration. In addition, our study sheds light on the underlying reasons for migration and on difficulties encountered in the destination country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to examine the instrumental use of social capital regarding career growth within an organization, focusing on the mediating role of perceived competence mobilization and the moderating role of two situational variables: perceived external prestige and job insecurity climate. Design/methodology/approach: Relationships among the constructs are predicted based on relevant literature, and are tested using survey results from 324 employees working in 14 leading corporations in Korea. Findings: Results show that social capital positively influenced, via perceived competence mobilization, each of two career growth dimensions (i.e. the personal efforts to develop a career and the experience of being rewarded by the organization). In contrast, moderated path analysis indicated that perceptions of external prestige and job insecurity climate failed to moderate the indirect effect of social capital on career growth. Practical implications: In light of the instrumental use of social capital and the ensuring mechanism of competence mobilization, a detailed understanding of this effect on career growth cannot only neutralize the fears of brain drain, but is also helpful in providing possibilities for building new career development strategies. Originality/value: Although social capital has become an influential concept in social sciences, little evidence has been presented on the above relationship, particularly from the perspective of careerist orientation. This may be the first research examining how and when the influence of social capital becomes instrumental with respect to career attainment within an organization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Migration is a permanent phenomenon rooted in history and it involves high-skilled workers (HSWs), high-educated workers (HEWs) and students. Among them, a crucial role is played by PhDs. Both HSWs and HEWs face the risk of not finding a job matching their skills and they can opt to accept a job for which they are overeducated or move to another country or region. The mobility of HSWs can be interpreted as a positive issue that can help to match jobs and skills. However, the emergence of a clear path between areas of countries or regions (e.g., from Southern to Northern Italy) highlights the risks of a drain of human capital from areas with low development to more developed ones. In this paper, we focus on a category of HSWs who have been almost neglected by the literature, PhDs. The aim of this study was to shed light on the mobility pattern of Italian PhDs. This aim was pursued by using microdata from the 2014 ISTAT Survey on the professional conditions of Italian PhDs four and six years after the end of their studies. This work highlights that southern PhDs had a higher probability of moving to another area of the country, while northern PhDs seemed to prefer to move abroad, thus confirming a previous study which identified a similar pattern for graduates. While the northern part of the country compensates for the drain of human capital with the mobility from the other part of Italy, the southern part faces a relevant drain of 'talents'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]