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Background: In 2015, a new Liberal Government came to power in Canada, elected on a platform that included legalization and regulation of cannabis for recreational purposes. Their legislation, based on recommendations from a Federal Task Force on Marijuana Legalization and Regulation, is due in early April 2017.Methods: This commentary utilizes Canadian Federal policy papers, previous literature, and internal and international agreements to examine two key areas critical to the development of a nationwide regulated market for cannabis in Canada; the need to overcome restrictions to legalizing cannabis in United Nations' drug control treaties, and the unique challenges that non-medical cannabis creates for navigating interprovincial trade policies in Canada.Results: Irrespective of UN conventions that appear to prohibit legalization of cannabis the Government is preparing to bring forward legislation as this article goes to print. At the same time significant squabbles impede the selling of even beer and wine inter-provincially in Canada. This paper identifies the challenges facing Canadian legalization efforts, but also shows how the legalization legislation may provide opportunities to engender significant change beyond the simple legalization of a specific drug.Conclusion: This commentary does not argue for any specific course of action for Canada, but rather explores the nuance of legalization absent from the declaration in the Liberal party platform. The paper argues that Canada's efforts may hasten the dismantling of the UN drug control structure, and provide renewed opportunities for intern-provincial trade in Canada. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An effective approach to drug regulation is a growing concern. Since 2012, 10 US States and Uruguay have taken the step to revoke prohibition and legalize the recreational cannabis market. Based on the findings from a study ('Cannalex') carried out in 2015-2017 in Colorado, Washington and Uruguay by the French Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (OFDT) and the Institute of Security and Justice (INHESJ), relying on a hundred of in-depth interviews analyzed in line with the existing official statistics and studies, this paper shows heterogeneous policy-making models and contexts for reform. It also examines the early outcomes of the cannabis policy change. A mixed picture is emerging from the regulatory regimes currently implemented. This paper discusses the reform processes and their early outcomes, with a specific focus on the less documented area: the political processes that led to legalizing cannabis, analyzed with qualitative data. It argues that the different outcomes reported across Colorado, Washington and Uruguay are framed by the regulatory options that were taken, depending on specific dynamics of reform. The discussion focuses on some hot topics raised by the effective regulations, stressing that the array of cannabis regulatory options is a public debate that has just begun. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aims: There is little information on consumption patterns across the diverse range of cannabis product types. This paper examines trends in consumption patterns in Canada and the United States (US) between 2018-2020.Design: Repeat cross-sectional surveys were conducted as part of the International Cannabis Policy Study online survey in 2018 (n=27,024), 2019 (n=45,426), and 2020 (n=45,180).Setting: Respondents were recruited from commercial panels in Canada and US states that had and had not legalized non-medical cannabis (US 'legal' and 'illegal' states, respectively).Participants: Respondents were male and female participants aged 16-65 years.Measurements: Data on frequency and consumption amounts were collected for nine types of cannabis products, including dried flower and processed products (e.g., oils and concentrates). Consumers were also asked about mixing cannabis with tobacco. Socio-demographic information was collected.Findings: Dried flower was the most commonly used product, although use in the past 12 months declined between 2018 and 2020 in Canada (81% to 73%), US legal (78% to 72%) and illegal states (81% to 76%; p<0.05 for all). Prevalence of past 12-month use increased for virtually all other product forms, although prevalence of daily use remained stable across years. In 2020, edibles and vape oils were the most commonly used products after flower. Use of non-flower products was highest in US legal states, although similar trends were observed in all jurisdictions. Males were more likely to report using processed products, and vape oils were the most commonly processed product among 16-20-year-olds. Daily use of cannabis flower increased in US legal and illegal states, and average joint size increased across all jurisdictions over time.Conclusions: Dried flower remains the dominant product in Canada and the US; however, use of processed cannabis products has increased, with the largest increases observed in legal cannabis markets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Response variability across the lifespan is an important consideration in toxicology and risk assessment, and the toxic effects of drugs and chemicals during adolescence need more research. This paper summarizes a workshop presented in March 2019, at the Society of Toxicology Annual Meeting in Baltimore, Maryland, that brought together experts in research on drug dependence and toxicity related to nicotine, cannabis, cocaine, and other illicit drugs during adolescence. The goal of the workshop was to address the following issues: (1) Do the effects of adolescent exposure differ from the same exposure in adults? (2) Are there unique biological markers of adolescent brain development? If so, what are they and how reliable are they? (3) Since multiple factors influence substance use disorder, can we disentangle risk factors for abuse and/or toxicity? What are the underlying biological susceptibilities that lead to dependence and neurotoxicity? What are the social, psychosocial and environmental factors that contribute to abuse susceptibilities? This paper reviews drug policy and national trends in adolescent substance use; the public health consequences of e-cigarettes; rat models of adolescent-onset nicotine self-administration and persisting effects of gestational nicotine; sex-dependent effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on adolescent brain-behavior relationships; and translational approaches for identifying adolescent risk factors for transition to drug dependence. There is strong evidence that drug exposure prior to adulthood has longer lasting effects on behavior and the underlying neural circuitry. These effects, which are sex-dependent and influenced by stress, may be candidates as predictors of adolescent vulnerability. A major challenge to determining if adolescents have a unique susceptibility to dependence is whether and to what extent the human data allow distinction between the increased risk due to biological immaturity, an underlying biological susceptibility to dependence, or psychosocial and environmental factors for substance dependence. Factors important to consider for development of animal models include the timing and pattern of exposure as it relates to adolescence; age of assessment, and direct comparison with similar effects following exposures to adults to demonstrate that these effects are unique to adolescence. Here we provide a roadmap for further research into what makes adolescent brain development unique. • Evidence supports increased vulnerability to drug dependence during adolescence. • A number of promising biological indicators for addiction risk are being developed. • A roadmap for further research into adolescent brain development is presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]