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Transformer oil is widely used in high‐voltage transformers as a cooling and insulation medium. Electrical and thermal stresses expose transformer oil to degradation, which may produce dissolved decay products (DDPs) that are partially adsorbed on the insulation paper and accelerate the degradation of oil and paper. An evanescent field D‐shaped plastic optical fibre (POF) sensor was fabricated using the side‐polishing technique to detect DDPs in transformer oil. A laser light source and power meter were used in the prototype to measure the output power of the POF sensor. The measurement of DDPs was conducted on seven samples of insulating oil collected from the field. The sensor performance was evaluated based on different sensing areas, and the sensor sensitivity was measured. Results show an excellent correlation between the output power and DDPs. A correlation analysis was conducted amongst sensor output power, transformer oil refractive index and area under the absorbance curve. The performance of the sensor demonstrates improved linearity and sensitivity of 97.49% and 26.6779 µW/RIU, respectively. The POF sensor is easily fabricated, low cost and can be used for real‐time monitoring of high‐voltage transformers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The condition assessment of oil–paper insulation is a vital issue in transformer management. To investigate the effect of moisture content on the accuracy of the prediction model, accelerated ageing experiments were performed with different initial moisture content (IMC) in laboratory condition. Two types of multi-parameter lifetime prediction models, e.g. with and without consideration of IMC, were presented for comparison purpose. The authors found that a better accuracy for its prediction results could be achieved by establishing the prediction models with the consideration of IMC. Besides, models considering IMC have better economic feasibility than that without considering IMC(non-IMC) as its total cost is cheaper according to life cycle cost (LCC) calculations. In addition, failure probability based on the proposed prediction models was also calculated as a direct indicator for evaluating the oil–paper insulation status. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The condition assessment of oil–paper insulation is a vital issue in transformer management. To investigate the effect of moisture content on the accuracy of the prediction model, accelerated ageing experiments were performed with different initial moisture content (IMC) in laboratory condition. Two types of multi‐parameter lifetime prediction models, e.g. with and without consideration of IMC, were presented for comparison purpose. The authors found that a better accuracy for its prediction results could be achieved by establishing the prediction models with the consideration of IMC. Besides, models considering IMC have better economic feasibility than that without considering IMC(non‐IMC) as its total cost is cheaper according to life cycle cost (LCC) calculations. In addition, failure probability based on the proposed prediction models was also calculated as a direct indicator for evaluating the oil–paper insulation status. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nomex insulation paper has been widely used in mining dry type transformer insulation because of its excellent performance. However, the injection of space charge can affect the electrical properties of the Nomex paper and accelerate the ageing process of the insulation system, which causes the insulation system failure or even breakdown. Therefore, it is of great practical value to study the space charge characteristics of Nomex insulation paper in different hygrothermal ageing conditions. The accelerated hygrothermal ageing tests of Nomex insulation specimens with different initial moisture contents were conducted. The space charge distribution of specimens impregnated by varnish were measured by the pulsed electro‐acoustic method at different ageing stages. Simultaneously, the space charge characteristics during polarising and depolarising phases were deeply analysed. Experimental results show that negative charges accumulate between the varnish‐paper interface in specimens near the anode. The number of negative charges gradually decreases with the increase of ageing degree. Under the influence of humidity, Nomex paper can be hydrolysed, which increases the trap density and trap level. Finally, a large amount of positive and negative charges in aged specimens would result in the distortion of the local electric field, which could decrease the breakdown strength of Nomex insulation specimens and be a threat to transformer insulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transformer winding hot‐spot temperature (HST) is one of the important factors affecting transformer oil–paper insulation deterioration. This study presents a three‐dimensional coupled electromagnetic‐fluid‐thermal analysis method for HST calculation in a 10 kV oil‐immersed distribution transformer, the influence of the transformer internal metal structure parts on the HST of the winding is considered in the simulation. Combining electromagnetic‐field calculation with no‐load test and load test of the transformer provides a more accurate method to determine internal losses of the transformer. Taking those power losses as heat sources, the transformer fluid‐thermal field analysis is conducted with the finite volume method. The variation of physical parameters of transformer oil with temperature is considered in the simulation. On the basis of the equivalent thermal resistance theory, the equivalent thermal conductivities of transformer windings are obtained. The simulation results deduced from the proposed method agree well with the experimental ones, which are obtained with fibre optic temperature sensors during the transformer temperature rise test, the maximum temperature difference is <3°C. The results validated the validity and accuracy of the proposed transformer HST calculation method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The AC breakdown properties of Kraft paper, pressboard and the enamel insulation layer in riceoil, peanut oil and corn oil were investigated under both new and agedconditions. The ageing of paper insulators and the enamel insulation layer inoils with the open cup method was carried out at 130 oC for 500 h in an aircirculation oven. The puncture breakdown strength was determined by varying thenumber of layers and thickness of Kraft paper, while various electrode gapdistances were used to measure the surface breakdown strength. Experimentalresults show that the breakdown strength and the tensile strength of paperinsulators impregnated with these vegetable oils are comparable to that inmineral oil, and the surface breakdown strength of paper insulators is slightlyaffected by types of impregnating oils. The ageing significantly reduces boththe breakdown strength and the tensile strength of paper insulators ininvestigated oils. In addition, it was also found that the enamel layer invegetable oils withstood higher puncture breakdown strength than in mineral oil,and the ageing process significantly reduced the puncture breakdown strength ofthe enamel layer. This enamel layer was observed to markedly enhance the surfacebreakdown strength of pressboard. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The value of paper conductivity provides quantitative evaluation of transformer insulation health. However, proper identification of paper conductivity requires complete profile of polarisation–depolarisation current (PDC). PDC measurement being a time‐consuming offline process generally takes several hours to complete. Furthermore, magnitude of PDC becomes very low at larger value of time, which makes it sensitive to changes in environmental conditions and field noise. Hence, accuracy of paper conductivity identification can be ensured by conducting multiple measurements. This in‐turn prolongs shutdown time of equipment and become less advantageous to utilities. Here, a method is proposed which is capable of estimating paper conductivity using PDC data recorded for only 800 s. The proposed technique is tested on data collected from several real‐life in‐service transformers. In order to illustrate the accuracy of the proposed technique, paper conductivities (calculated from short duration PDC) were compared with those computed using PDC measured for 10,000 s. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Polarisation current profile varies non‐linearly with a magnitude of charging voltage. This implies performance parameters obtained from polarisation–depolarisation current and those measured using specialised equipment cannot always be compared. Results reported in this study suggested that the non‐linearity in insulation response can be explained in terms of the interaction between space charge and insulation conductivity. The influence of using different charging voltages and its effect on performance parameter calculation is investigated in this study with the help of laboratory samples. It is shown in this study that with the help of a trained artificial neural network, it is possible to identify the charging voltage at which insulation response exhibits minimum non‐linearity. To test the accuracy of the proposed method performance parameters measured using commercial equipment are compared with those calculated from the polarisation current profile. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To investigate the effect of aging on surface discharge of the pressboard on the shielding electrode at the end of bushing, a thermal aging preparation methods of different aging degrees of pressboard samples, surface defect model, and the associated hemisphere are designed and the step‐up method is used for subsequent experimental work. Finally, the partial discharges (PDs) under different degrees of aging are compared and combined with Fourier Transform Infrared spectra and electric field simulation. Results show that the pre‐discharge occurs mainly in the oil gap between the hemispherical electrode edge and the pressboard. The aging of the pressboard exerts no obvious effect on the discharge characteristics in the initial stage of PD; with the development of the discharge, the development of aging of pressboard leads to a higher electric field intensity acting over a greater area, the more intense the discharge, the faster the relative discharge increases and the larger its amplitude. This discharge will cause decomposition of the oil in the pores of the aging pressboard thus generating gas bubbles which will move as discharge develops. When the bubbles reach the surface of the pressboard, the local electric field intensity will increase and the discharge will become more intense. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The oil‐impregnated transformer is an important part of the power system. The ageing degree of the internal oil‐paper insulation determines the service life of the transformer. The low frequency of the frequency domain dielectric spectroscopy can effectively characterise the ageing degree of transformer oil‐paper insulation. For accurately and quantitatively evaluate the aging state of oil‐paper insulation of transformer, the physical process of low‐frequency electrode polarisation is theoretically analysed in this work. Considering the polarisation of the low‐frequency electrode, the theoretical expression of the dielectric response of the equivalent XY model of the transformer is obtained. Meanwhile, to verify the rationality of the theoretical expression, the accelerated thermal ageing test of the oil‐paper insulation samples were carried out under laboratory conditions. The DC conductivity, ion mobility and FDS tests of oil‐paper insulation samples were tested on ageing 5, 10 and 15 days, respectively. The test results were combined with the theoretical expression of the low‐frequency dielectric response. It is found that the difference between the calculated result and the measured result is small. Therefore, the theoretical expression of the transformer equivalent XY model can be applied to calculate the dielectric parameters of the oil‐paper insulation at low‐frequency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Induction period evaluated from time domain dielectric response of oil‐paper insulation (OPI) contains information related to heat dissipating property of oil. In the present paper, effect of aging sensitive oil properties on the value of induction period is investigated. Three types of dielectric liquids (pure mineral oil, synthetic ester, mixture of synthetic ester, and mineral oil) are considered for the present work. A neural network (NN) is used for modelling the non‐linear relationship between induction period and various oil properties. The trained network is subsequently used to study the influence of various oil properties on induction period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The service life of a transformer depends on the ageing degree of the internal oil–paper insulation. In order to reliably predict the remaining service life of oil–paper insulation for a single transformer, this study proposes a method based on monitoring the performance degradation data of oil–paper insulation. In this study, the remaining life prediction model of oil–paper insulation is established according to the Wiener stochastic process. The parameters of the model are iteratively updated by using the Bayesian rule and maximum expectation algorithm. The objective of remaining service life prediction of transformer oil–paper insulation is achieved. In the laboratory, multiple groups of oil–paper insulation samples undergo an ageing test at 130°C. Certain amount of performance degradation data is obtained by continuously monitoring the oil–paper insulation. Along with the prediction method of remaining life, the accuracy of the remaining life prediction of transformer oil–impregnated paper is verified when the model parameters are updated. This is a significant guiding factor for predicting the remaining life through the performance degradation data of the continuously operating transformer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The analysis of dielectric response function obtained from the power transformer is a well‐accepted technique in insulation diagnosis. A convenient way of analysing time‐domain dielectric response φ (t) is the formulation of simple resistance−capacitance‐based circuits like the conventional Debye model (CDM) or the modified Debye model (MDM) that are capable of modelling φ (t). However, available techniques do not guarantee unique branch parameters of such circuits for a given φ (t). In fact, the branch parameters are known to depend on the curve‐fitting procedure opted during model formulation. This makes accuracy of CDM and MDM parameter‐based diagnosis techniques less reliable. Furthermore, it seems logical to analyse the time‐domain dielectric response of oil‐paper insulation using a model containing time‐varying parameters. In this study, a methodology is proposed using which such an insulation model (containing time‐varying parameters) is formulated using time‐domain insulation response. Related analysis presented suggests that the proposed model is immune to problems associated with available insulation models (containing time‐invariant parameters). The performance of the proposed model in indicating insulation condition is tested on data obtained from several real‐life power transformers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The impulse voltage wave invading a transformer is not the double exponential impulse wave (DEIW) specified by the IEC but a non‐standard waveform with oscillation attenuation characteristics, and this fact leads to doubts about the scientificity and optimality of insulation coordination. A key solution for this issue is the establishment of an equivalent relationship between the measured non‐standard impulse voltage wave and the DEIW. In this study, a test platform of multiparameter impulse voltage was set up. Then, the authors obtained the 50% breakdown voltage (U50%) of the oil‐impregnated paper (OIP) for transformer under the bipolar oscillatory attenuated impulse wave (BOAIW) and the DEIW with different waveform parameters. The effects of waveform parameters on the breakdown characteristics of the OIP were finally revealed. On the basis of experimental data and several mathematical methods, the authors established the U50% prediction mathematical models for the OIP under the BOAIW and DEIW. Based on the prediction models and the microfluctuation characteristics of measured overvoltage's waveform parameters, the authors proposed a method for evaluating the waveform equivalence. The characteristics of voltage amplitude and change rate were regarded as the two key factors for the waveform equivalence of this method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Study of alternate fluids for transformer and their combination with traditional ones is an interesting area of research. The intent of this work is to investigate the thermal ageing performance of ester oils (synthetic and natural), and mixed oil vis‐à‐vis mineral oil. All the samples were thermally stressed at 110, 140, 160, and 185°C for 2 weeks each. Dissolved decay contents in oil and linear thermal expansion coefficients of solid insulation have been studied using ultraviolet visible infrared spectroscopy and dilatometry analysis, respectively, as per ASTM standards. Change in functional groups of the insulation oils with ageing have been understood by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis. Additionally, diffusion of oil–moisture mixture into paper with ageing and the corresponding effect on dielectric strength of paper has been also examined using ASTM standards. It is observed that the use of synthetic ester (SE) and addition of SE to mineral insulating oil lead to improved performance of oil–paper insulation system with retarding the rate of degradation of the insulation system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Capacitive high‐voltage bushing is one of the typical oil‐immersed paper insulation equipment, which is an indispensable external connection component for power transformers. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of frequency domain spectroscopy (FDS) for diagnosing moisture content of oil‐immersed paper insulation bushing, this article studied the frequency‐domain dielectric characteristics of oil‐immersed paper insulation samples and field bushing. At the same time, the basic principle of interfacial polarisation is used to analyse the samples and field bushing with non‐uniform moisture content. The results show that the moisture content affects the whole frequency band of the FDS curve. When the distribution of moisture content is non‐uniform, the paper with high moisture content has a great influence on the whole FDS curve of oil‐immersed paper insulation. In addition, the FDS curves will show a significant loss peak. The frequency of the peak point gradually moves towards the high frequency as the non‐uniformity of the moisture content distribution increases. The experimental results show that the variation law of oil‐immersed paper insulation can be used to quantitatively evaluate the moisture content and moisture type of oil–paper insulation power equipment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The existing research on furfural analysis mainly focuses on the relationship between the furfural content in oil and the degree of polymerization (DP) of the paper, which are always obtained by accelerated thermal aging at high temperatures. However, the operating temperature of a winding is relatively low, approximately 60°C to 90°C. Thus, the relationship established at high temperature may be not suitable for the operating temperatures. In this research, aging tests of oil‐paper systems at different temperatures (from 100°C to 130°C) were carried out, with the DP, furfural content in oil and furfural content in paper being measured regularly to analyze the effect of temperature variation on the production and diffusion behavior of furfural in oil–paper insulation. The results show that temperature influences the production of furfural, i.e., there is no obvious difference in the amount of furfural produced by paper in the initial aging periods; however, a higher temperature results in more furfural being produced when the DP decreases to values below 600. An obvious diffusion process occurs after furfural is produced in paper in accelerated aging experiments, resulting in most of the furfural content remaining in the cellulose paper in the initial aging period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurate estimation of paper‐moisture in transformer insulation is necessary for ensuring their satisfactory operation. Paper‐moisture in transformer insulation can be estimated from their corresponding transfer function zero obtained from insulation model that is parameterised using polarisation depolarisation current data. However, paper‐moisture estimated using transfer function zero is less reliable for a new unit. Considering the fact, a method is proposed in this work that can estimate the paper‐moisture with greater accuracy. Instead of using only transfer function zero, tanδ has also been employed for estimating the paper‐moisture. In order to investigate the effectiveness, the proposed technique has first been applied on several test samples in the laboratory. The proposed technique is then applied on few power transformers to estimate their paper‐moisture. Results obtained from the experiment show that this technique can estimate the paper‐moisture content within test samples and power transformer insulation with better accuracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Frequency‐domain spectroscopy (FDS) is a widely accepted method for the estimation of moisture content in oil–paper insulation of power transformer. Researchers have shown that measurement temperature is an important factor that not only shifts the tan δ curve both horizontally and vertically with respect to frequency axis but also affects the value of paper‐moisture content of transformer insulation. This implies FDS data measured at different temperatures yields different results even if the insulation under consideration remains more or less unaffected. Availability and construction of master curve for in‐service real‐life units might not always be available. This study proposes a method that is capable of predicting the profile of tan δ curve at different measurement temperatures. Existing expressions available for predicting paper‐moisture does not consider the effect of change in measurement temperature. This study also proposes modification of existing expression to predict the moisture content of insulation paper at any measurement temperature. In addition, this study outlines a method to evaluate the value of activation energy (Ea) from the insulation response. The discussed technique is first tested successfully on data recorded from a laboratory sample. Thereafter, the method is applied on data collected from a real‐life power transformer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The oil‐paper compound insulation plays a vital role in the insulation structure of power transformer. To obtain the characteristics of the transformer's insulation system, it is of great importance to study the dielectric response of oil‐paper compound insulation. In this study, fractional calculus is applied to model the oil‐paper compound insulation. Both low‐frequency and broadband high‐frequency models are proposed and then they are verified by fitting the measured data of different insulation papers. Finally they are applied to two different cases: (i) the low‐frequency model for fitting polarity reversal property; (ii) the broadband high‐frequency model for studying the influence of the parameters variations on the frequency domain spectroscopy (FDS). The results demonstrate the advantages of the proposed models when compared with traditional ones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the inhibitory effects of adsorption treatment on the degradation of oil–paper insulation and corrosive sulphur in oil. A thermal ageing experiment at 130°C was conducted using five different adsorbents to adsorb some impurities in oil on the 15th day of a 30 day ageing test, the related characteristics of oil–paper insulation before and after the adsorption treatment were measured and analysed. Meanwhile, a thermal ageing experiment at 150°C was also conducted before using five different adsorbents to adsorb dibenzyl disulphide (DBDS) in oil, energy dispersive X‐ray was used to evaluate the degree of the corrosion of windings. The result indicates that adsorption treatment is an effective method to inhibit the degradation of oil–paper insulation. A molecular sieve, silica gel and activated alumina can effectively improve the performance of oil–paper insulation. By contrast, the antioxidant (2, 6‐di‐tert‐butyl‐p‐cresol) can be also adsorbed by adsorbents, which accelerate the ageing degradation of the insulating oil. On the other hand, the adsorbents can adsorb DBDS in oil, but cannot remove all DBDS. The effect achieved from silica gel is especially significant, which not only effectively improves the performance of oil–paper insulation but also adsorbs DBDS in oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copper sulphide deposition on insulating paper in oil‐impregnated power transformers affects the characteristics of oil‐paper insulation. Although several external factors, including electric field, contribute to the formation of deposition, the specific effect of electric field on copper sulphide deposition is still not well understood. This study presents an experimental research about the effect of an electric field on copper sulphide deposition. Paper pig‐tail wrapped copper winding were used, and 1.5 kV AC voltage at 130°C was applied on the winding for accelerated electric‐thermal ageing. The influence of partial discharge on deposition was investigated further. Results showed that the weight of copper sulphide depositions increased because of the presence of an electric field. Interestingly, this corrosion became serious under partial discharge effect. The electrochemical erosion and high temperature generated by partial discharge were considered as the main reasons for this phenomenon. The acid generated by the ageing of oil‐paper insulation further contributed to the acceleration of chemical reaction. The electric field aggravates Cu corrosion, which eventually leads to thermally induced dielectric breakdown of the insulating systems in transformers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Frequency domain spectroscopy (FDS) is being used to assess the insulation condition of oil–paper power transformers. However, it has to date only been implemented on de‐energised transformers, which requires the transformers to be shut down for an extended period and may cause significant costs. To solve this issue, a newly improved monitoring method based on the FDS principle is proposed to implement the dielectric measurement on energised transformers. Moreover, a chirp waveform excitation and its novel processing method are introduced. Compared with the conventional FDS results, dielectric results from the energised insulation system have higher tanδ values because of the increased losses. To further understand the insulation ageing process, the effects of the geometric capacitance are removed from the measured imaginary admittance of the insulation system to enhance the ageing signature. The resulting imaginary admittance is then shown to correlate well with the central time constant in return voltage measurements results. The proposed methods address the issues on techniques used on energised transformers and provide a clue for on‐line FDS diagnostic application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]