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Currently, concern about facial attractiveness is increasing, and this fact has led to orthodontics in adult patients being an increasingly demanded treatment, and with it, multi-disciplinary work. When it is caused by a vertical excess of the maxilla, the ideal solution is orthognathic surgery. However, in borderline cases and when the cause is hyperactivity of the upper lip levator muscle complex, alternative conservative solutions can be considered, such as the application of botulinum toxin A (BTX-A). Botulinum toxin is a protein produced by a bacterium and causes a reduction in the force of muscle contraction. The multi-factorial nature of the smile requires an individualized diagnosis in each patient, since there are multiple ways to treat the gummy smile (orthognathic surgery, gingivoplasty, orthodontic intrusion). In recent years, interest has grown in the simplest techniques that allow the patient to quickly return to their usual routine, such as lip replacement. However, this procedure shows recurrences in the first 6–8 post-operative weeks. The main objective of this systematic review and meta-analysis is to analyze the effectiveness of BTX-A in the treatment of gummy smile in the short term, to study its stability, and to evaluate potential complications. A thorough search of the PubMed, Scopus, Embase, Web of Science, and Cochrane databases and a grey literature search were conducted. The inclusion criteria were studies with a sample size greater than or equal to 10 patients with gingival exposure greater than 2 mm in smile, treated with BTX-A infiltration. Those patients whose exclusive etiology of their gummy smile was related to altered passive eruption, gingival thickening, or overeruption of upper incisors were excluded. In the qualitative analysis, the mean pre-treatment gingival exposure ranged between 3.5 and 7.2 mm, reaching a reduction of up to 6 mm after infiltration with botulinum toxin at 12 weeks. Although multiple muscles are involved in the facial expression, the muscles par excellence selected for blockade with BTX-A were levator labii superioris, levator labii superioris ala nasalis, and zygomaticus minor, infiltrating from 1.25 to 7.5 units per side. In the quantitative analysis, the difference in mean reduction between both groups was −2.51 mm at two weeks and −2.24 mm at three months. The benefit of BTX-A in terms of improvement of gummy smile is demonstrated, as a significant reduction in gummy smile is estimated by BTX-A therapy two weeks after its application. Its results gradually decrease over time, however, they stay satisfactory without returning to their initial values after 12 weeks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Let P be a minimal parabolic subgroup of a real reductive Lie group G and H a closed subgroup of G. Then it is proved by Kobayashi and Oshima that the regular representation C ∞ (G / H) contains each irreducible representation of G at most finitely many times if the number of H -orbits on G / P is finite. Moreover, they also proved that the multiplicities are uniformly bounded if the number of H ℂ -orbits on G ℂ / B is finite, where G ℂ , H ℂ are complexifications of G , H , respectively, and B is a Borel subgroup of G ℂ . In this paper, we prove that the multiplicities of the representations of G induced from a parabolic subgroup Q in the regular representation on G / H are uniformly bounded if the number of H ℂ -orbits on G ℂ / Q ℂ is finite. For the proof of this claim, we also show the uniform boundedness of the dimensions of the spaces of group invariant hyperfunctions using the theory of holonomic X -modules. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The process of senescence (aging) is predominantly determined by the action of wild-type genes. For most organisms, this does not reflect any adaptive function that senescence serves, but rather evolutionary effects of declining selection against genes with deleterious effects later in life. To understand aging requires an account of how evolutionary mechanisms give rise to pathogenic gene action and late-life disease, that integrates evolutionary (ultimate) and mechanistic (proximate) causes into a single explanation. A well-supported evolutionary explanation by G.C. Williams argues that senescence can evolve due to pleiotropic effects of alleles with antagonistic effects on fitness and late-life health (antagonistic pleiotropy, AP). What has remained unclear is how gene action gives rise to late-life disease pathophysiology. One ultimate-proximate account is T.B.L. Kirkwood's disposable soma theory. Based on the hypothesis that stochastic molecular damage causes senescence, this reasons that aging is coupled to reproductive fitness due to preferential investment of resources into reproduction, rather than somatic maintenance. An alternative and more recent ultimate-proximate theory argues that aging is largely caused by programmatic, developmental-type mechanisms. Here ideas about AP and programmatic aging are reviewed, particularly those of M.V. Blagosklonny (the hyperfunction theory) and J.P. de Magalhães (the developmental theory), and their capacity to make sense of diverse experimental findings is assessed. • Evolutionary (ultimate) and mechanistic (proximate) factors together cause aging. • The disposable soma theory is one integrated ultimate/proximate account of aging. • Recently new ultimate/proximate theories of aging have emerged. • They view programmatic mechanisms as more important to aging than damage. • Here the hyperfunction, developmental and ontogenetic theories are reviewed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work we study microlocal regularity of hyperfunctions defining in this context a class of generalized FBI transforms first introduced for distributions by Berhanu and Hounie. Using a microlocal decomposition of a hyperfunction and the generalized FBI transforms we were able to characterize the wave-front set of hyperfunctions according to several types of regularity. The microlocal decomposition allowed us to recover and generalize both classical and recent results and, in particular, we proved for differential operators with real-analytic coefficients that if the elliptic regularity theorem regarding any reasonable regularity holds for distributions, then it is automatically true for hyperfunctions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]