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After the French defeat in May-June 1940, Japan invaded Indochina, a French colony. Then, many women and men decided to create some circuits to resist this occupation. Their mission dealt with the Japanese soldiers in the peninsula, with whom Admiral Decoux's General Government wanted to maintain a modus vivendi in the name of Vichy. The time constraints were different for these groups than for their metropolitan counterparts: they kept on fighting until their destruction on 9 March 1945 and the Japanese overthrow of the peninsula. Although Vichy's implication in Indochina is well known, the anti-Japanese resistance groups from this region and their participation in the Allied victory in and out of mainland France have not been studied recently. This paper intends to focus on the dynamics of these circuits' interventions during their fight in Indochina. How did they maintain contact with Free French Forces despite their geographical isolation? What was their implication in the final victory against the Japanese forces? As with the war itself, Resistance was an international phenomenon which was not limited to European borders but spread throughout the world through contacts with the Allied secret services. This paper will study the construction and materiality of these contacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Worldwide, subject-matter teachers are commonplace in post-elementary schools. Teachers' specialisation appears as a key characteristic of secondary schools as opposed to the polyvalence of primary school teachers. Historians have already studied the long process of teachers' specialisation, which started, in France as in Prussia (for example), at the beginning of the nineteenth century and developed alongside secondary school modernisation. Those works have usually focused on professional aspects: the structuration of professional groups thanks to the unification of training and recruiting processes, the organisation of teachers within subject-matter associations etc. However, they have not paid much attention to the resistance opposed by other forms of pedagogical organisation, as if polyvalence were were just a backward anomaly, a backward anomaly, doomed to disappear. This paper seeks to shed new light on this question using a comparison between the different forms of post-elementary schooling that existed at the same time in France between the last third of the nineteenth century and the middle of the twentieth, when the slow growth of post-elementary schooling was mainly due to the success of subaltern institutions. In those institutions, dedicated to technical education, girls' secondary education, or upper-lower classes' education ("primaire supérieur", "secondaire special"), different kinds of polyvalence or bivalence were experienced in the classrooms. At the same time, specialisation was triumphing in classical secondary education. Why, how and to what extent did specialisation eventually impose itself in these different institutions? To address this question, two types of material are used. On the one hand, the question is studied on a national level, analysing both the legislation and the controversies it arouses in pedagogical and professional reviews. On the other hand, these views and theories are confronted with a prosopography of post-elementary school teachers in one department, Eure-et-Loir, which offers several forms of post-elementary institutions. This question is addressed focusing on literary disciplines (philosophy, French, Latin, Greek, modern languages and history and geography). By narrowing the scope, the intellectual and cultural stakes of the various pedagogical organisations that were implemented or advocated may more easily be grasped. The first part of the article examines the most common (though relatively untested) hypothesis: there was just one strategy for those who advocated the promotion of subaltern types of post-elementary schooling as part of a democratisation process, and this strategy was reproducing the model of the elite institution, secondary classical education, including its pedagogical organisation, starting with subject-matter teachers. The chronology of the changes, the content of the debates, as well as a comparative inquiry into teachers' remuneration induces us to discard this hypothesis as insufficient if not irrelevant. For girls' secondary education, a trade-off may be observed between equalisation (of salaries, rights etc.) and pedagogical alignment. For the other institutions, there was no lack of advocates for the specificity of the pedagogy or of the institution; however, specialisation was usually considered a process that could ameliorate the quality of teaching in these institutions without renouncing its specificity. In fact, in the period under study, the louder advocates for less specialised teachers came from secondary classical education itself: the specialisation process as well as the fragmentation of the class schedule had pedagogic inconveniences, abundantly noticed and commented on by subject-matter teachers themselves. In the second part, these critics and the two main alternatives suggested by the teachers are examined. The first is linked with the Progressive Education movement ("Education nouvelle" in French). The École des Roches, a private institution, tested an original organisation that combined the tradition of the humanities with the modern characteristic of "Éducation nouvelle": there was only one teacher for history, geography, French, Latin and Greek. The teacher was thus enabled to practise a pedagogy of interest, as advocated by Ovide Decroly. The second alternative was advocated by some modern language teachers: if modern language teachers could teach French as well as a modern language, this pedagogic organisation could give strong unity to the until then defective "modern" curriculum (without Latin). The third part turns towards the effective organisation of post-elementary schools in Eure-et-Loir. To what extent were these alternative conceptions of pedagogical organisation implemented? The analysis of individual records of teachers suggests several results. First of all, in small institutions – be they classical secondary institutions like "collèges" or modern ones like "écoles primaires supérieures" – specialisation of services was a luxury that most teachers could not afford. Most of the time, they had to teach several subjects, even if they had been trained for just one. However, polyvalence was not used as an opportunity to make connections between the subjects. Class schedules rarely enabled teachers to use polyvalence as a way to teach several subjects to the same pupils. More often, polyvalence was used by the administration as an expedient that some teachers explicitly tried to escape, for example by asking for a move to a bigger institution. This mundane reality of small institutions invites us to pay renewed attention to teacher training and its regulation during the same period. At the end of the nineteenth century, teachers' specialisation had been inextricably linked with the modernisation of universities through the specialisation of the "licence de lettres" in 1880. When this model proved to be partially irrelevant for a significant proportion of post-elementary schools, how did universities react? Were universities fit for something other than training specialised teachers? The answer is yes. The curriculum organisation of the licence opened up several possibilities for training polyvalent teachers. This perspective was still looming at the end of the 1930s. The curricula of the different post-elementary settings analysed in this article shared the same characteristics: they worked as "serial codes" not as "integrated codes", to quote Basil Bernstein. Therefore the specialisation, bivalence or polyvalence of the teachers did not have much influence, in itself, on the degree of integration of the curriculum. From this perspective, specialisation could probably guarantee better teaching of the subject matters. However, polyvalent teachers were better suited to small schools than specialist ones. Considering demographic and geographic constraints, there was a clear trade-off between specialisation of teachers and separation of publics. In small cities, it was necessary either to mix the pupils to specialise the teachers, or to accept some kind of polyvalence to keep different types of students separated; the debate was still open during the 1930s. School massification, coeducation and the baby-boom era rapidly settled the matter for small cities after the Second World War, giving way to an effective specialisation of teachers. But the question remained open, until the end of the 1970s, for rural settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Au terme desProlégomènes(1900), Husserl formule son idée de la logique pure en la structurant sur deux niveaux: l'un, supérieur, de la logique formelle fondé transcendantalement et d'un point de vue épistémologique par l'autre, inférieur, d'une morphologie des catégories. Seul le second de ces deux niveaux est traité dans lesRecherches logiques(1901), tandis que les travaux théoriques en logique formelle menés par Husserl à la même époque en paraissent plutôt indépendants. Cet article est consacré à ces travaux tels que recueillis dans les appendices VI-X du volume 12 desHusserliana(1970a). Mettant en évidence la théorie de la signification qui les sous-tend par le biais d'une analyse de la question dite de l'extension des systèmes d'axiomes et de sa résolution au moyen d'une notion decomplétude, son objectif est d'expliciter les modalités de l'intégration de la logique formelle dans l'idée husserlienne de la logique pure au tournant duxxsiècle. When formulating his idea of pure logic in the Prolegomena[Husserl, E. 1900. Logische Untersuchungen. T. I : Prolegomena zur reinen Logik, Halle: Niemeyer. Éd. fr.: Husserl 1959; chap. XI], Husserl configures it on two levels: the superior one of formal logic, concerned with the axiomatization of mathematical structures; the inferior one of transcendantal logic grounding the former from an epistemological standpoint (i.e. as a science and in terms of theory of knowledge). Nevertheless, only the latter is taken into consideration in the Logical Investigations[Husserl, E. 1901. Logische Untersuchungen. T. II: Untersuchungen zur Phänomenologie und Theorie der Erkenntnis, Halle: Niemeyer. Éd. fr.: Husserl 1961/1963], while the theoretical work on formal logic that Husserl conducted at the same time seems at first glance rather independent. This paper is about that work as collected in the appendices VI–X toHusserliana 12 [Husserl, E. 1970a. Philosophie der Arithmetik. Mit ergänzenden Texten (1890–1901). Sous la dir. de Lothar Eley. (Husserliana 12). Den Haag: Nijhoff. Éd. orig.: Husserl 1972a, 1975]. And it aims at explicating how Husserl's conception formal logic fits in with his idea of pure logic. After an introductive recall about the young Husserl's evolution (Section 1), such a goal is reached here in three steps: first, by a presentation of Husserl's setting up of formal logic in 1900–1901 revolving around systems of axioms and formal domains with a focus on their linkage (Section 2); then, by the formulation of the question dealing with that very linkage, that is, the question of the extension of systems of axioms based on the so-called ‘problem of imaginary in mathematics’ focusing Husserl's theoretical research on formal logic at that time (Section 3); finally, by an analysis of Husserl's solution to those problem and question via his notion ofdefinitenessof systems of axioms and his conception of their completeness (Section 4). Realized from a historico-epistemological perspective, that systematic reconstruction highlights the theory meaning underlying Husserl's conception of formal logic and according to which, precisely, that latter integrates his idea of pure logic at the turn of the twentieth century (Section 5). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite numerous French scientific expeditions across the Pacific, from Bougainville in 1766 to Du Petit-Thouars in 1842, very few ethnographic objects — indigenous artifacts — are now held in public collections. The invisibility of such artifacts, or Oceania, brought back by French voyages of discovery contrasts sharply with the 2000 objects collected during the three voyages of James Cook and still preserved in repositories throughout the world. The rarity of archival records relating to the French assemblages means that few reliable identifications are possible. It is surprising that these collections, gathered at great expense, should have disappeared almost at the point of their creation since, in Europe generally, the project of assembling South Seas collections quickly became established. Moreover, the intellectual commitment of Natural History to the systematic ordering and methodical classification of things was already in full force. The discontinuous history of the first collections brought back to France from the Pacific is a remarkable example of the failure to develop a science of man grounded in objects. This paper highlights the contrast between English and French conceptions of a museological project for dealing with Oceania. It investigates the relationships between a material history of collections and the science of man then emergent in France. The disappearance of these objects from the late 18th and early 19th centuries must be understood in the context of the stalling of a project to conceptualize non-European worlds through cultural artifacts. This failure points to the French paradox of having lost almost everything, despite the formulation over more than a century of several museological projects intended to conserve, exhibit and exploit such objects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It took more than a dozen years after the Armistice of 11 November 1918 for football matches between France and Germany to be resumed. Four matches were organised between 1931 and 1937 at a time when France’s response to the rise of German military ambitions was mainly to support pacifism. The last match, planned for 1939, was cancelled. Against a background of economic crisis and growing tensions between the two nations, these sporting events were widely reported in the press. The four specialist newspapers analysed in this paper – Football, Match, Le Miroir des Sports and L’Auto – reflected France’s anxiety as well as her political attitudes. From the French point of view, these matches (concerning the most popular sport of both countries) mirrored a growing belief in Germany’s superiority while disseminating stereotypes of both the ‘German’ and the ‘Frenchman’. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the research methods of one of the most famous twentieth-century Russian philosophers, Aleksei Losev. At present, the work of this thinker is the subject of study at numerous universities in Russia, North America, and Europe. Nevertheless, questions about Losev's place in contemporary philosophy and his research methods remain unanswered. Thus, this article examines the most important philosophical tendencies that significantly influenced Losev's work and concludes that Losev is primarily and overall a dialectician and the author of a very specific and original philosophical doctrine whose methodological founding principles originate in dialectical logic, one that differs considerably from other theories that currently exist in contemporary philosophy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]