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The Himalaya and Hengduan Mountains (HDM) are recognized as two global biodiversity hotspots, harboring the world's richest alpine flora. However, to what extent the distribution of alpine plants here is affected by climate change remains largely unknown. Bergenia (Saxifragaceae) are perennial medicinal herbs mainly distributed in the Himalaya-HDM region. In this study, we used bioclimatic data for current and future climate scenarios to assess the impact of climate change on the potential distribution of three Bergenia (Saxifragaceae) species. Our results revealed that the geographical distribution of the studied Bergenia species is primarily influenced by precipitation and elevation. By 2090, the three Bergenia species are expected to show contrasting range changes. The western Himalayan alpine species Bergenia stracheyi is expected to expand its range with 21.93 and 17.36% under the optimistic (SSP1-2.6) and moderate (SSP2-4.5) climate change scenario, respectively, while its distribution will shrink by 5.26% under the pessimistic scenario (SSP5-8.5). The Himalayan mid-elevation species B. ciliata is expected to expand its range from 142.42 to 157.14%. In contrast, the distribution range of the east Himalaya-HDM alpine species B. purpurascens is expected to shrink with 34.88 to 47.24%, with most of the habitats in the southeast chains of the HDM at lower elevation summits being lost. In addition, all three Bergenia species are projected to shift their ranges to higher elevations in response to temperature increases. Overall, we conclude that alpine plants may be more vulnerable to climate change than their congeners at lower elevations, supporting the "nowhere to go" hypothesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To understand how past geological events and climate changes have shaped extant patterns of diversity is a central goal in biogeography. The uplift of the Himalayan-Tibetan region profoundly changed the environment in Eastern Asia, especially in the development of vast evergreen broadleaf forests (EBLFs) in the Subtropical Zone. However, when and how these forests developed remains unclear. Here we focus on Quercus section Cyclobalanopsis, a dominant component of EBLFs since the Miocene in Eastern Asia. In this study we integrated occurrence data, climate data, and a published phylogeny of 35 species of section Cyclobalanopsis with ecological niche modeling (MaxEnt) to explore the evolution of climatic tolerance of section Cyclobalanopsis since the late Eocene (34 Mya). The intensification of the East Asian monsoon system and occupation of new climatic niches by the ancient clades already present in the Himalayas and in tropical Asia may have jointly promoted the formation of subtropical EBLFs in Eastern Asia since the Miocene, especially the late Miocene. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the era of anthropocene, global warming tends to alter the distribution range of the plant species. Highly fragile to such changes are the species that are endemic, inhabit higher elevations and show narrow distribution ranges. Predicting and plotting the appropriate suitable habitats and keeping knowledge of how climate change will affect future distribution become imperative for designing effective conservation strategies. In the current study we have used BIOMOD ensemble forecasting to study the current and predict the future potential distribution of Dactylorhiza hatagirea and Rheum webbianum and describe their niche dynamics in Himalayan biodiversity hotspots under climate change scenarios using ecospat R package. Results reveal sufficient internal evaluation metrics with area under curve (AUC) and true skill statistic (TSS) values greater than 0.8 i.e. 0.93 and 0.98 and 0.82 and 0.90 for D. hatageria and R. webbianum respectively, which signifies robustness of the model. Among different bioclimatic variables, bio_1, bio_3, bio_8, bio_14 and bio_15 were the most influential, showing greater impact on the potential distribution of these plant species. Range change analysis showed that both the studied species will show significant contraction of their suitable habitats under future climatic scenarios. Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 8.5 for the year 2070, indicate that the suitable habitats could be reduced by about 51.41% and 70.57% for D. hatagirea and R. webbianum respectively. The results of the niche comparisons between the current and future climatic scenarios showed moderate level of niche overlap for all the pairs with D. hatageria showing 61% overlap for current vs. RCP4.5 2050 and R. webbianum reflects 68% overlap for current vs. RCP4.5 2050. Furthermore, the PCA analysis revealed that climatic conditions for both the species vary significantly between current and future scenarios. The similarity and equivalence test showed that the niche between present and future climate change scenarios is comparable but not identical. From the current study we concluded that the influence of climate change on the habitat distribution of these plant species in the Himalayan biodiversity hotspots can be considered very severe. Drastic reduction in overall habitat suitability poses a high risk of species extinction and thereby threatens to alter the functions and services of these fragile ecosystems. Present results can be used by conservationists for mitigating the biodiversity decline and exploring undocumented populations on one hand and by policymakers in implementing the policy of conservation of species by launching species recovery programmes in future on the other. The outcomes of this study can contribute substantially to understand the consequences of climate change in the Himalayan biodiversity hotspots. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Picrorhiza kurrooa is an endangered medicinal herb which is distributed across the Himalayan region at an altitude between 3000–5000 m above mean sea level. The medicinal properties of P. kurrooa are attributed to monoterpenoid picrosides present in leaf, rhizome and root of the plant. However, no genomic information is currently available for P. kurrooa, which limits our understanding about its molecular systems and associated responses. The present study brings the first assembled draft genome of P. kurrooa by using 227 Gb of raw data generated by Illumina and PacBio RS II sequencing platforms. The assembled genome has a size of n = ~ 1.7 Gb with 12,924 scaffolds. Four pronged assembly quality validations studies, including experimentally reported ESTs mapping and directed sequencing of the assembled contigs, confirmed high reliability of the assembly. About 76% of the genome is covered by complex repeats alone. Annotation revealed 24,798 protein coding and 9789 non-coding genes. Using the assembled genome, a total of 710 miRNAs were discovered, many of which were found responsible for molecular response against temperature changes. The miRNAs and targets were validated experimentally. The availability of draft genome sequence will aid in genetic improvement and conservation of P. kurrooa. Also, this study provided an efficient approach for assembling complex genomes while dealing with repeats when regular assemblers failed to progress due to repeats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The genus Rhododendron is considered one of the relictual plant taxa having circumboreal distribution. However, through vicariance followed by orogeny, the distribution of this plant genus was vastly affected. A total of forty six Rhododendron species in Bhutan Himalayan region share most of its species with central Himalayan countries. Additionally, the genus Rhododendron is found even to the extend to Far East Asia. However, very little information is available on the comparative study of the phytogeographic distributions of genus Rhododendron between Himalayan countries and the extent of East Asia. Various literatures and derived data on the Rhododendron species availability were studied. Findings revealed that the Rhododendron arboreum is found to be widely distributed across the whole Himalayan range to the neighbouring countries in East Asia. It could be reasoned that Rhododendron species of Himalayan range are confined within their geographical boundary and remain isolated from other populations. We proposed that heterogenous environmental condition offered by might have played an important role in sustaining the diversity of Rhododendron in Himalayan range. Although Bhutan Himalayan range is not accounted a center of distribution of Rhododendron species, it might have helped as an important corridor for the dispersal of plant elements as it connects many floristic region and biogeographic realms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The flora of Laos is composed of 5,005 species in 1,373 genera and 188 families of seed plants. Floristic and geographical attributes of the flora were analyzed. Tropical floristic elements at the family and generic levels contributed a majority (62.23% of the families and 82.30% of the genera) of the flora, of which the dominant geographical elements were pantropical distribution (42.02% of families) and tropical Asian distribution (30.08% of genera). This revealed that the flora of Lao PDR is tropical in nature and has a conspicuously tropical Asian affinity. Compared with the neighbouring countries of the Indochina peninsula, the flora of Laos has similar floristic composition and geographical elements. The floras of these Indochinese countries have similarities of more than 77.84% at the generic level, which suggests that they compose an affiliated biogeographical region. However, the flora of Laos showed the highest similarity to the flora of Vietnam (92.13%), followed by Myanmar (86.01%) at the generic level, but has less East Asian and North Temperate elements than Vietnam, and less North Temperate elements than Myanmar. These differences among the compared countries could be explained by the extrusion of the Indochinese block with the uplift of the Himalayas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nonstructural carbohydrates (NSC) are the crucial components of plant metabolism, and NSC dynamics provide essential information on plant carbon balance, which usually changes toward the distribution limits of plants. NSC have been extensively used to study the elevational limit in trees all around the world. For alpine herbs, which occupy vast areas beyond treelines, such investigations are still lacking. To assess whether carbon supply is a limiting factor for the upper distribution limits of alpine herbs, we studied NSC in belowground organs of 11 perennial species across their 4500–6000 m elevation ranges in the Western Himalayas at the peak of the growing season. We found a general elevational increase in total NSC within and across species. Studied alpine plants contain simple sugars and fructans as the main NSC and less so starch. Species- and compound-specific elevation patterns were found for different NSC compounds, suggesting a regulatory role of NSC in alpine herbs acclimation rather than a general accumulation of all NSC resulting from growth limitation. Similar to studies on treeline NSC dynamics, our study shows that reduced carbon supply is an unlikely cause of high-elevation range limits in herbs. Yet, the elevational NSC dynamics in alpine herbs still needs further exploration, with an emphasis on different compounds and their function in acclimatory metabolic processes, to clearly identify the key mechanisms determining plant range limits. • Nonstructural carbohydrates (NSC) shortage is not a cause of plant elevation limits • Total NSC in studied Himalayan plants generally increased with elevation. • Simple sugars and fructans predominate in plant belowground organs. • Individual types of NSC compounds suggest an active acclimation to elevation [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Himalayan 'maggar' bamboo (Dendrocalamus hamiltonii), widely distributed in the Himalayas, was found to exhibit mild virus-like symptoms, which included mosaic, chlorosis, necrotic spots and mottling. Leaf samples from symptomatic plants were subjected to reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for the detection of Cherry necrotic rusty mottle virus (CNRMV). Sequencing of the amplicon confirmed the presence of the virus. To further establish bamboo as a natural host of CNRMV, 35 varieties of bamboos maintained at CSIRIHBT were subjected to double-antibody sandwich enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (DAS-ELISA) and dot blot hybridization. Our results showed the presence of CNRMV in 21 species of bamboos belonging to five genera, viz. Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, Fargesia, Arundinaria and Melocanna. For further confirmation of the results, the coat protein (CP) gene of CNRMV was amplified from two different local 'maggar' plants. Sequencing of the CP gene confirmed the presence of the virus. The two isolates characterized from bamboo plants, shared 99.8% nucleotide sequence identity with sweet cherry isolate JK10 characterized from India. This study presents sequence information from two isolates of the virus. CNRMV infection in bamboo is being reported for the first time and only the second virus reported in bamboo after Bamboo mosaic virus (BaMV). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leptodermis riparia R.Parker (Rubiaceae) is rediscovered after a gap of 90 years from its Type locality in the eastern part of Uttarakhand, Western Himalaya. Recent field studies have found two additional localities for this species in the state. All three populations were found in the riparian zone especially on rocky substrate rich in limestone. We observed that the Type locality of this species has been severely eroded due to a major flash flood in Kali river during 2013. In this article, we present a description, habitat characteristics, known distribution, and conservation status of L. riparia in the Western Himalaya. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Silene vulgaris is an important ethnobotanical species, but so far no thorough meiotic analysis has been performed, despite its wide occurrence in temperate and alpine Himalayas, this prompted us to undertake present study. We investigated original meiotic chromosome number and effect of cytomixis on meiotic course, microsporogenesis and pollen grain size and fertility. The paper also summarizes the previously published chromosome counts in the species and cytogeography of 2 x and 4 x cytotypes in the Indian Himalayas and elsewhere. Meiocytes preparations were made through standard squashed technique in 1 % acetocarmine. Two ploidy levels have been determined during the cytomorphological surveys, diploid (2 n = 2 x = 24) and tetraploid (2 n = 4 x = 48). Most of the presently scored populations were found to be diploid (2 n = 2 x = 24). Morphologically 2 x and 4 x individuals were indistinguishable from each other. Meiosis was perfectly normal in 4 x cytotype. However, some of the 2 x plants showed the phenomenon of cytomixis and associated meiotic abnormalities. Consequent to cytomixis, hypo-, hyperploid and enucleated pollen mother cells (PMCs) were resulted. Such PMCs combined with other meiotic abnormalities yielded sterile and variable sized pollen grains. On the basis of overall information, it is clear that 2 x cytotype is the most widely distributed cytotype in the Indian Himalayas as well as elsewhere. On the other hand, the 4 x cytotype seems to be less frequently present in the Indian Himalayas and outside of India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This is the pioneering attempt to study the spatial patterns in structure of lotic ecosystems that form the Ganga River system in the Himalaya. The diversity of source (glacier-fed [GF], snow-fed [SN] and spring-fed [SF]) and stream-size (both interrelated) across the altitudinal panorama, create numerous habitats that contribute to structural diversity. The spatial patterns in richness, density and taxonomic composition and distribution of benthic diatoms are less affected by source compared with macro-invertebrates but shows strong influence on the distribution of fish fauna that are poikiliotherms, because a glacier-fed river carries ice-cold water (usually <20°C) in contrast to normal waters in spring-fed system (22°C near snowline, 32°C in foothills). The abundance patterns of biota of lower organisation grade (diatoms, macro-invertebrates) do not differ sharply even across distant river basins as they are more influenced by proximate factors; thus the sub-basins of the Alaknanda resemble more by virtue of one basin and there is notable resemblance between distant SF Bemunda (lower Ganga basin) and SF Gomti (East Rāmgangā basin) and even the farthest Yamuna and Rāmgangā. Fish are more sensitive to temperature and current velocities that are related to altitude and hence longitudinal rather than the spatial gradients in the mountains. The lotic ecosystem of Doon Valley harbour rich and diverse diatom flora, macroinvertebrate fauna and ichthyofauna. The examination of trophic, saprobic and ecological status shows that organic pollution, degradation and anthropogenic eutrophication are non-existent in the Lesser Himalayan rivers and streams, but the fragile Doon Valley is under severe anthropogenic stress. This and habitats fragmented by hydropower projects in the major rivers has threatened the iconic game fish Himalayan mahseer in the Ganga. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

A critical study on the genus Bryum Hedw., an acrocarpous moss of family Bryaceae, revealed the occurrence of 21 species from seven state of eastern Himalaya: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim and West Bengal. Among these twenty one species, B. argenteum var. griffithii (Muell. Hal.) Gangulee, B. billardieri Schwaegr., B. pallescens Schleich. ex Schwaegr., B. pseudotriquetrum (Hedw.) P. Gaertn., B. Meyer & Scherb., B. pseudotriquetrum var. subrotundum (Brid.) Gangulee and B. reflexifolium (Ochi) Ochi are new additions to Meghalaya; B. billardieri Schwaegr. to Manipur while B. apiculatum Schwaegr., B. caespiticium Hedw. and B. pseudotriquetrum var. subrotundum (Brid.) Gangulee are new for West Bengal. Identification key to all the known species of the genus occurring in eastern Himalaya, alongwith the notes on their ecology and distribution have been provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: A field based technique has been developed to identify and delineate the areas of potential hill slope instability with the help of ecological indicator. Habitat characteristics and spatial–temporal occurrence of indicator taxon were investigated with respect to its natural environment. The study includes extensive field surveys, laboratory studies and comparison of historical maps at local scale coupled with literature appraisal at local, regional and global scales. Instability generated due to slope disturbances by natural and anthropogenic activities along the roads, ravines, stream banks, terraces, cultivated land, old landslide sites and human settlements was investigated during the years 2000–2005. It was followed by regional and global scale study during the years 2009–2011. It is established that the instability is manifested by occurrence of indicator species and its spatial dominance delineates the areas of potential instability. The investigated inherent characteristic features of the indicator species viz., rapid growth (145cm/year), primary succession, nitrogen fixation and obtrapezoid-winged seed structure, roots and suckers morphology and associated microclimatic scenario have been found extremely decisive to the process of manifestation of slope instability. Study at three experimental sites and vicinity also confirmed that wide-spread occurrence of indicator taxon is not related to specific soil and rock type, gradient or aspect but is exclusively attributable to its unstable environment. The indicator taxon has been identified as Alnus nepalensis D. Don and its invasion delay to the unstable slopes was reported by one to two years. Indicator''s habitat affinity to instability and its phyto-geographical range was explored between 1000–2590m asl at local scale in Garhwal Himalaya and 900–2700m at regional scale in Indian Himalayan and other mountain states viz., Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Assam and Meghalaya, while it is reported between 200m and 2800m at global scale in Asian countries like Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, China, Myanmar and Bangladesh. The proposed ecological approach to identify and delineate the areas of potential hill slope instability seems to be promising and may be termed innovative, as it involves only local resource as a scientific tool and traditional wisdom as technical excellence. Unlike geotechnical methods of slope instability assessment, this being simple, eco-friendly, self sustainable and cost effective, it is socially acceptable and can also be used by non-scientists for planning and management in Himalayan region and similar other regions of the world. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Background: Many studies have shown that alien species richness pattern follows that of native species richness patterns along environmental gradients, without taking the specific composition of the two groups into account. Objectives: To compare species richness patterns of native and alien woody plants along an altitudinal gradient in Kashmir Himalaya, India, and to analyse the specific composition, e.g. proportion of life forms. Methods: Analysis of secondary data from published floristic inventories. The gradient (500–4800m asl) was split into 100m bands and presence/absence data for each species were obtained, for each band. Results: Species richness of both native and alien species followed a hump-shaped distribution. Alien species richness dropped faster above 2000masl than the native did. The ratio of trees to shrubs decreased monotonically along the gradient in native species, but showed a peak at c. 2500masl in alien species. Alien species flowered in average earlier than native species. Conclusions: The change of species richness of native and alien species along altitude is similar, but the proportion of life forms is not. Most likely both climatic and socio-economic factors affect alien species richness and its specific composition in the Kashmir Himalaya. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Extant Berberis is a member of the basal eudicots with a South America (group Australes)-Old World (group Septentrionales) disjunctive distribution pattern. Different hypotheses have been proposed to explain the formation of this pattern. Recent molecular studies suggest that this pattern was caused by a vicariance event in the Cretaceous. More fossil evidence is required to evaluate these hypotheses. Here a new species of Berberis from the Palaeocene Wuyun flora is established based on a detailed comparison with all other fossil and related living Berberis. The occurrence of a Palaeocene Berberis in NE China and other fossil data suggest that 1) the genus originated in eastern Asia, 2) the leaf venation of the genus probably evolved from pinnate to acrodromous, leaf margins from densely spinose teeth to only occasionally toothed or even entire, 3) the genus would appear to have migrated from eastern Asia to North America in the Oligocene, via Beringia. Berberis probably arrived in Europe from Asia during the late Oligocene when Eurasia was reunited after the retreat of the Turgai Straits. Berberis could have migrated to India from eastern Asia, arriving before the last major upheaval of the Himalayas in the Pleistocene. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In spite of the high economic value of the Saussurea species in the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR), the potential of most of the species is yet to be investigated. Therefore, an attempt has been made to study the diversity, distribution, habitat preference, nativity, endemism, status and indigenous uses of Saussurea species in the IHR. A total of 62 species were recorded from the IHR; of these, 37 species were native to the Himalayan region, 8 were endemic and 21 were near endemic to the IHR. Twenty-seven of the 28 species that were known to have indigenous uses also had medicinal value and are used for the treatment of various diseases/ailments. Many species, e.g., S. affinis (Ganga Mula*), S. auriculata (Pachak Kut), S. bracteata (Prerak Mul), S. costus (Kuth), S. gossypiphora (Kasturi Kamal) and S. obvallata (Brahm Kamal), have multiple uses. The genus showed high habitat specificity in that 16 species were recorded to be restricted to one or two habitats only. As many as 44 species were identified as rare in the study region. Considering the high industrial demand for raw materials and the endangered status of S. costus, S. gossypiphora, S. obvallata and S. simpsoniana (Fen Kamal), these species should be prioritized for conservation (in situ and ex situ) throughout the IHR. Population assessment of the rare-endangered, native, endemic and economically important species using standard ecological methods has been suggested for the quantification of the existing stock of these species in their natural habitats. Further, phytochemical investigations for the identification of active ingredients are suggested. Propagation and cultivation techniques are lacking for most of the species of Saussurea except for S. costus, S. obvallata and S. medusa (Snow Lotus). Furthermore, the native communities need to be sensitized to the sustainable use and conservation value of the species in this genus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Maianthemum (Ruscaceae) comprises 28–38 species and includes the two traditionally recognized genera: Maianthemum sensu stricto and Smilacina. Thirty-seven samples representing 22 species of Maianthemum and six closely related outgroup taxa were sequenced for eight chloroplast and nuclear markers (trnL-F, rps16, rpl16, psbA-trnH, rbcL, ndhF, trnK, and ITS) with a total length of nearly 10,000 base pairs. Phylogenetic analyses supported the monophyly of Maianthemum with Maianthemum sensu stricto nested within Smilacina. Almost all species from the eastern Himalayan region in SW China except for Maianthemum tatsienense and M. stenolobum form a well supported clade. This clade is characterized morphologically by short filaments and large anthers, relatively large flowers, and pubescent stems and leaves. Maianthemum tatsienense and M. stenolobum from SW to central China form another clade. The other species from eastern Asia (central to NE China and Japan) and the New World fall into several clades. The intercontinental disjunction between eastern Asia and North America in Maianthemum sensu stricto is estimated to be at 1.68 million years ago (mya) with the Bayesian relaxed clock relying on uncorrelated rates. A recent radiation at about 2.04mya is suggested in the high mountains of SW China, corresponding to the geographical heterogeneity in that region after the uplift of the Himalayas. Long distance dispersal by birds may have facilitated the evolution of their intercontinental disjunction and their biogeographic diversifications in SW China. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

A rare bramble from the eastern Himalaya, Rubus calophyllus C.B. Clarke is illustrated. Its distribution and habitat are described and related species are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Ensemble modeling framework predicting potential distribution of snow trout. • Hydrogeomorphic and climatic variables came out as best predictors. • Mid-elevation rivers were predicted to be highly-suitable for snow trout. • High altitude squeeze: major loss at lagging edge, lesser gain at leading edge. • Cross-boundary climate-adaptive actions required across Himalayan nations. Mountain systems throughout the globe are conspicuously sensitive to on-going climate alterations. This condition is much more detrimental in the Himalaya, where the rate of warming and thus the glacier meltdown is much higher than elsewhere. The Himalayan coldwater species are concerningly most vulnerable to these changes because of their limited thermal range. Whilst climate studies strongly prognosticate the altered distribution of plants and mammals in this region, the impact on coldwater fishes still remains unknown. We used snow trout (Schizothorax richardsonii), a Himalayan coldwater specialist as a model organism to predict the current suitability and climate-driven potential range shift in an ensemble-based modeling framework. We collated occurrence data from a long term, extensive field-based sampling with additional records derived from an in-depth literature survey. A comprehensive input data set including topographic, hydrogeomorphic and climatic variables were used to build correlative species distribution models for the current and future time-periods (2050 and 2070) under three-carbon emission scenarios (Representative Concentration Pathways) by integrating five General Circulation Models. Furthermore, we predicted the elevation-specific range shifts of the snow trout in response to climate change. We predict that a wide-ranging mid-elevation river network is currently suitable for the snow trout in Himalaya, however a significant part of its current distributional range would be lost over time. Our results highlight that snow trout would expand their range upwards into the high-altitude streams with a concurrent predominant range contraction in most of their lagging edges, ultimately creating a high-altitude squeeze. The net habitat loss under three RCP scenarios (RCPs 2.6, 4.5 and 8.5) was estimated to range from 7.41% to 16.29% for the year 2050 which would further increase in the year 2070 ranging from 9.46% to 26.56%. These results provide a strategic information on prioritizing climate-adaptive actions to target the currently suitable habitats and future refugia identified. Our modeling framework also provides a foremost basis to conserve not only the snow trout but also to evaluate the climate impact on several other coldwater species, which are equally vulnerable and ecologically important in the Himalaya. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]