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Indigenous knowledge (IK) is a valuable knowledge system available to a particular group of communities. This knowledge system forms the basis of identity for various indigenous communities in the world. It is a holistic knowledge system alternative to the knowledge imparted in the formal education system. So, IK has numerous facets within it. This paper discusses the facet of agriculture; the indigenous irrigation system practised by the Tangkhul Tribe in Manipur, India. A survey was conducted in Ukhrul District, Manipur, to understand the traditional irrigation system used by the Tangkhul Tribe. Field Interviews and observation methods were used to collect the data. Respondents consist of a farmer over the age of sixty. The main objective of the study was to document the traditional process irrigation system that includes methods, raw materials and tools used. The study found that the irrigation system used in the study area is purely indigenous and sustainable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Developmental actors are pushing the diffusion of solar powered irrigation technologies using different technology diffusion models in resource-constrained, underdeveloped agrarian regions of the Global South. Among the varied models, the hybrid model of technology diffusion and environmental governance has gained a lot of traction and support among the technology promoters in recent years. In this article, we analyse two cases of hybrid environmental governance employed for the diffusion of solar powered irrigation technologies in rural Bihar, India. The promoters of solar powered irrigation technologies wish to achieve environmental sustainability, enhance farmers income and mitigate climate change through promoting renewable-based technologies. The top-down framing of technology and environment in hybrid environmental models often uncritically negates the place-based embedded experiences of end-users and non-users. The paper argues that the role of end-users and non-users in hybrid environmental governance need to be understood using the bottom-up approach. The paper makes a case for acknowledging and incorporating the views and environmental subjectivities of end-users and non-users while planning developmental interventions. The paper ends up suggesting a few policy-relevant suggestions for hybrid models of technology and environmental governance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Domesticated rice (Oryza sativa), typically a water-intensive crop, is widely cultivated in the semi-arid zones of South India and Sri Lanka and is a staple among sedentary populations in these regions when the opposite should prevail in light of environmental constraints. This paper investigates the origins of large-scale rice cultivation in South India and Sri Lanka and the attendant innovations in hydraulic technologies using a wide range of sources but with a special focus on Tamil "Caṅkam" texts, the earliest surviving textual corpus for the Dravidian language family. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tanks are the important traditional source of irrigation in India. They are a low-cost source with fewer management problems, but their performance has been deteriorating over the years. Using time-series data from the periods 1960–61 to 2013–14, this paper analyses the performance of tank irrigation across the districts, regions and categories of farmers in Andhra Pradesh, India. The study shows that districts that traditionally had a large tank irrigated area have registered a sharp reduction in that area. A substantial reduction in tank irrigated area is found in the Rayalaseema region where tanks are critical for farming. Correlation analysis suggests a significantly negative impact of groundwater area on tank irrigated area in most districts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Irrigation is an important adaptation strategy to cope with climate change which reduces vulnerability to water stress and improves crop productivity to feed millions. There is evidence of crop yield stagnation in many developing countries, and irrigation efficiency is claimed to increase crop productivity. Therefore, this paper uses data envelopment analysis to evaluate the farmer's productivity through technical efficiency (TE), i.e., the relationship between resource inputs and outputs of 513 paddy farmers in Eastern India. The results show that the farms are, on average operating at 14% TE, leaving a considerable scope to improve up to 86% to reach the optimal level. A significant difference is observed between irrigated and rain-fed paddy farmers, such that10% of the irrigated farms achieved efficiency scores over 40% and only 2% of rain-fed farms achieved the same. The tobit and beta fit regression models are estimated to find out the factors that influence the TE. Both surface water and groundwater sources of irrigation are used as predictors, along with other socio-demographic factors. Access to surface water irrigation is identified to be a significant determinant of farm efficiency, however, surface water irrigation, such as canal irrigation, is accessible only to farmers living on plain land. Farmers living on highlands need to explore other sources of irrigation practices, such as drip and sprinkler, that can increase TE and farm productivity. Therefore, this paper calls for government intervention to provide extensive training and facilities for these micro-irrigation practices. • Data Envelopment analysis was estimated to derive the paddy efficiency among the tribal villages of eastern India. • The DEA estimates show that average Technical efficiency in the study region is much below the national average. • Irrigated farmers are more efficient than the rain-fed farmers. Surface irrigation is the dominate factor. • Rain-fed paddy cultivators' farm efficiency would improve by 6.5%, if they had irrigated. • Semi-mountainous regions with little access to surface irrigation must explore micro-irrigation practices such as drips and sprinklers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the importance of generating proper water accounts for large gravity-based irrigation schemes in order to assess scheme performance. It shows how the use of simplistic criteria used to assess the performance of gravity-based irrigation schemes can lead to an underestimation of the role they play in enhancing food security and agricultural production in countries such as India, which has established a huge network of irrigation canals. The paper offers specific suggestions on improving irrigation statistics that, in turn, can help in better evaluation of the returns on investments of public surface irrigation schemes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An attempt has been made in this paper to analyse the spatio-temporal variations of cropping intensity and irrigation intensity, and their relationship, in North Twenty Four Parganas district in West Bengal, India from 1996/97 to 2015/16. The relationship between cropping intensity and irrigation intensity has been assessed using partial correlation, residual mapping and hierarchical cluster analysis. One-way ANOVA has been conducted for testing the equality of cluster means. Temporal analysis from 1996/97 to 2015/16 has shown a low positive correlation between cropping intensity and irrigation intensity for the entire district. Analysis at Agricultural Block level has revealed that cropping intensity decreased in many cases even after an increase in irrigation intensity. In general, cropping intensity has increased with the increase in irrigation intensity in the Coastal Saline Region and the Ichhamati Basin, whereas cropping intensity has increased even after a decrease in irrigation intensity in the Gangetic Plains Region in the district. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of groundwater in irrigation and drinking purposes and sustaining growth in economy is well-known. Groundwater is generally less susceptible to contamination and pollution when compared to surface water bodies. This paper is based on extensive investigations on the spatial and seasonal representative measurement of chemical parameters from 80 dug wells of Churu and adjoining Bikaner districts of Rajasthan, India. The region has dearth of water resources — both surface and sub-surface, with the main source of water being the dug wells. The application of hydro-statistical techniques and tools like Pearson's correlation coefficient, relative activity of sodium ion (SAR), Wilcox diagram, Piper diagram and magnesium hazard indicate that the chemical parameters of the water of the study region is of very poor quality and not suitable for drinking and irrigation purposes. Wilcox diagram shows high sodium content, can destroy the soil structure rendering the soil and water unsuitable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The importance of role of irrigation in developing countries is widely recognized for economic development and food security. It impacts growth of a nation and contribute to the wellbeing of the people. In India, since independence agriculture has been the primary source of income and a major sector employing vast majority of people till date. Shallow wells play a very important role in irrigating vast majority of area as it is affordable to even marginal farmers. Ground water levels have been greatly affected by increase in population, urbanization, growth of industries, consuming level of food and energy demands. It can directly impact the agricultural sector and hence impact economy. This paper analyses the sustainability of such wells through a case study demonstrating the use of statistical methods to derive useful information. The results indicate statistical methods can provide useful insights into the sustainability of shallow wells. Proper management strategies that can lead to sustainability have been suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study was conducted at flood affected Dhemaji district of Assam where the flood is a major concern for the livelihood of rural male youth. The paper focused on existing livelihood activities opted by of rural male youths, their reason for choosing the activities and problems encountered in doing it. To date, no study has looked specifically at all the three aspects. The present study together investigated all the three elements. The study selected 200 rural male youths from the district as respondents following multistage random sampling. The survey found the mean age of the respondents as 28.83 years. The study found that the respondents opted 17 types of livelihood activities. Most (25.50%) of the interviewees chose sali rice cultivation, and they (100.00%) cited the availability of suitable land as a reason. Under vegetable cultivation, 96.07% respondents mentioned scope for round the year production and income generation as reasons. The respondents opted piggery(100.00%), poultry (100.00%), weaving (100.00%), dairy (92.85%), goatery (91.66%) and fishery (90.00%) mentioned high market demand as a reason. Regarding the problem, all respondents (100.00%) opting sali rice cultivation and vegetable cultivation reported flood, flood-induced sand and insufficient irrigation as problems. The high price of improved livestock breed was an issue for respondents (100.00%) opting dairy, poultry, and piggery. In fishery, 80.00% respondents mentioned nonavailability of quality fingerlings as a problem. The paper urges the policy makers, researchers and development organisations for utilising the findings to select appropriate interventions for providing livelihood security to male rural youths of Dhemaji district of Assam State, India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Agriculture plays an important role in the growth of agriculture nation like India. The main source of water is essential for agriculture. The irrigation process supplies water, but sometimes the wastage of water may occur. For this reason, the irrigation control scheme in wireless sensor network (WSN) using Internet of things (IoT) is developed to save water and time. This paper presents an ANFIS‐PEGASIS: Irrigation control system‐data gathering in WSN using IoT. The process of the fuzzy inference system (FIS) is utilized for an optimum cluster head (CH) selection that depends on the distance and residual energy. After that, the power‐efficient gathering in sensor information system (PEGASIS) is used for the data collecting process in irrigation structure. PEGASIS is to make a chain between the sensor nodes (SNs), and every node communicates to the CH, and it's transferring the data to the base station (BS). Finally, the decision‐making process can be implemented by adaptive neuro‐FIS (ANFIS) for the automated irrigation process. ANFIS is a useful tool for the decision‐making process. Here, based on the information delivered by the sensors, the decisions are generated using ANFIS for the irrigation system. In the system, the various sensors like humidity, temperature, light intensity, and soil moisture are utilized to sense the different parameters of soil. Based on the value of soil moisture, the land becomes automatically irrigated by ON/OFF, the lamp, and the water pump. The simulation outcomes show that the developed (ANFIS‐PEGASIS) technique outperforms other recent approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From the 1980s, Indian summer monsoon rainfall (ISMR) shows a decreasing trend over north and northwest India, and there was a significant observed reduction in July over central and south India in 1982–2003. The key drivers of the changed ISMR, however, remain unclear. It was hypothesized that the large-scale irrigation development that started in the 1950s has resulted in land surface cooling, which slowed large-scale atmospheric circulation, exerting significant influences on ISMR. To test this hypothesis, a fully coupled model, the CESM v1.0.3, was used with a global irrigation dataset. In this study, spatially varying irrigation-induced feedback mechanisms are investigated in detail at different stages of the monsoon. Results show that soil moisture and evapotranspiration increase significantly over India throughout the summertime because of the irrigation. However, 2-m air temperature shows a significant reduction only in a limited region because the temperature change is influenced simultaneously by surface incoming shortwave radiation and evaporative cooling resulting from the irrigation, especially over the heavily irrigated region. Irrigation also induces a 925-hPa northeasterly wind from 30°N toward the equator. This is opposite to the prevailing direction of the Indian summer monsoon (ISM) wind that brings moist air to India. The modeled rainfall in the irrigated case significantly decreases up to 1.5 mm day−1 over central and north India from July to September. This paper reveals that the irrigation can contribute to both increasing and decreasing the surface temperature via multiple feedback mechanisms. The net effect is to weaken the ISM with the high spatial and temporal heterogeneity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditional water harvesting (tank) systems are integral to agricultural development and livelihoods of rural communities in India. Despite the fact that these systems provide number of services (drinking water, protective irrigation, etc.,), their importance and contribution declined during the post-independence India. Population pressure along with poor maintenance have led to their deterioration. For instance, the number tanks not in use has doubled between 2000-01 and 2010-11. The share of tank irrigation in to total irrigation in India declined from 17% to 2.5% between 1950-51 and 2014-15. Realising the multiple benefits from theses traditional systems, tank rehabilitation has been one of the policy priorities at the central as well as in some States. This paper is a review of experiences on tank systems and their rehabilitation across the regions of India. The idea is to explore the variations in tank systems across the regions and identify specific approaches for strengthening and promoting them. Tank uses, benefits, users or stakeholders differ from region to region. Hence, the priorities may not be same in all the regions. The evidence across the regions indicates that the benefits from tank rehabilitation outweigh the costs. It is argued that scaling up of tank rehabilitation at the national and state level is critical for providing substantial benefits to the local communities. While the policy initiatives to restore irrigation tanks are rational, the interventions need to be based on the changing conditions in terms of groundwater development and climate variability in the specific regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With established quotas that formalise the presence of women in local governance in rural India, it remains unclear how women are shaping public decision-making in practice. This paper, based on a survey carried out in four female-led and two male-led local governance institutions in Himachal Pradesh, empirically analyses decision-making based on competing Public Choice models. Results indicate that Public Choice theories fail to accurately predict decision-making because they do not account for embedded norms of gendered labour division. Female leaders can be constrained in their policy-making by the gender congruence of certain political tasks. This paper suggests that in the case of female-congruent political domains, such as health and education, a Citizen–Candidate model might best predict female-led decision-making processes while in the case of male congruence, such as irrigation and land development, a Downsian model might prevail. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper aims at demonstrating the application of the Akaike information criterion to determine the order of two state Markov chain for studying the pattern of occurrence of wet and dry days during the rainy season (April to September) in North-East India. For each station, each day is classified as dry day if the amount of rainfall is less than 3 mm and wet day if the amount of rainfall is greater than or equal to 3 mm. We apply Markov chain of order up to three to the sequences of wet and dry days observed at seven distantly located stations in North East region of India. The Markov chain model of appropriate order for analyzing wet and dry days is determined. This is done using the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) by checking the minimum of AIC estimate. Markov chain of order one is found to be superior to the majority of the stations in comparison to the other order Markov chains. More precisely, first order Markov chain model is an adequate model for the stations North Bank, Tocklai, Silcoorie, Mohanbari and Guwahati. Further, it is observed that second order and third order Markov chains are competing with first order in the stations Cherrapunji and Imphal, respectively. A fore-knowledge of rainfall pattern is of immense help not only to farmers, but also to the authorities concerned with planning of irrigation schemes. The outcomes are useful for taking decisions well in advance for transplanting of rice as well as for other input management and farm activities during different stages of the crop growing season. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drought is one of the major constraints to sustainable improvement of agricultural productivity in the rainfed farming systems. In this paper, we have examined the frequency, severity and spread of droughts in India, and assessed their impact on rice production. Our results show that one-third of the rice area in India is affected by droughts, mostly moderate droughts, the frequency of which has increased in recent years. The severity of droughts, however, has reduced. An assessment of their impact reveals a decline in drought-induced losses in rice yield, in absolute as well as relative terms. The weakening effect of droughts is attributed to improvements in farmers’ adaptive capacity due to expansion of irrigation facilities and increased availability of improved varieties for the rainfed production systems, along with other coping strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present and future landscapes and waterscapes of South Asia consist, in part, of many residues of the past-soils, slopes, and a range of water-related infrastructure. As such, many problems related to irrigation and rural water use are directly linked to the embodied histories of this region. Beyond lineal connections, many contemporary problems such as watershed protection, erosion, reservoir siltation, and falling water tables, were also faced by agriculturalists in the past. Archaeologies of flow thus may have some bearing on the present and future as well as the past. This paper provides a review of the evidence for changes in water use over the last 5,000 years in southern India, focusing on the semi-arid interior region of Karnataka state from the Southern Neolithic (c. 3000-1200 b.c.) to the present. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indian wheat cultivation changed radically in the 1960s due to new technologies and policy reforms introduced during the Green Revolution, and farmers' adoption of ‘packages’ of modern seeds, fertilizer, and irrigation. Just prior to the Green Revolution, Indian scientists adopted a new plant breeding philosophy—that varieties should have as wide an adaptation as possible, meaning high and stable yields across different environments. But scientists also argued that wide adaptation could be achieved by selecting only plants that did well in high fertility and irrigated environments. Scientists claimed that widely adapted varieties still produce high yields in marginal areas. Many people have criticized the Green Revolution for its unequal spread of benefits, but none of these critiques address wide adaptation—the core tenant held by Indian agricultural scientists to justify their focus on highly productive land while ignoring marginal or rainfed agriculture. This paper also describes Norman Borlaug's and the Rockefeller Foundation's research program in wide adaptation, Borlaug's involvement in the Indian wheat program, and internal debates about wide adaptation and selection under ideal conditions among Indian scientists. It argues that scientists leveraged the concept of wide adaptation to justify a particular regime of research focused on high production agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• UTFI reduces the intensity of seasonal floods by tapping and storing flood waters in aquifers for productive use. • Provides insights for scaling up the interventions in the Ganges and other flood prone river basins that face dry season water shortages. • Managing the interventions involves community participation on a regular basis. • Suggests short- and long-term institutional arrangements for managing UTFI. Protecting flood prone locations through floodwater recharge of the depleted aquifers and using it for protecting dry season irrigated agriculture is the rationale for a form of intervention termed as 'underground transfer of floods for irrigation' (UTFI). This helps reduce the intensity of seasonal floods by tapping and storing excess floodwater in aquifers for productive agricultural use. This paper presents a case study of managing the recharge interventions in the context of the Ramganga basin, India. Using a case study approach, this study determines the socio-economic and institutional context of the study area, proposes three potential routes to institutionalize UTFI, and provides insights for scaling up the interventions in the Ganges and other river basins that face seasonal floods and dry season water shortages. Managing the interventions involves community participation in regular operations and maintenance tasks. Given the limited scale of the pilot UTFI intervention implemented to date, and the socio-economic and institutional context of the case study region, the benefits are not conspicuous, though the piloting helped in identifying potential ways forward for the long-term management of the pilot site, and for scaling up the interventions. Initially pilot site management was handled by the project team working closely with the community leaders and villagers. As the intervention was demonstrated to perform effectively, management was handed over to the district authorities after providing appropriate training to the government personnel to manage the system and liaise with the local community to ensure the site is operated and managed appropriately. The district administration is willing to support UTFI by pooling money from different sources and routing them through the sub-district administration. While this is working in the short term, the paper outlines a programmatic longer term approach for wider replication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An extensive canal irrigation network in South Asia has developed over the past 170 years that consists of thousands of kilometers of constructed channels and distributaries. These canals cut across many energy-poor regions along their paths. In India, this canal network provides a unique opportunity for renewable energy generation that is yet to be realized. Existing technologies for energy generation on canals include small hydropower on canal falls and, recently, canal-top solar panels. In addition, opportunities for hydrokinetic generation in irrigation canals have received limited attention. This paper develops a novel canal-network level framework for energy planning that integrates generation with local energy needs in a canal-corridor. This framework for integrated spatial assessment analyzes the supply of renewable energy generation potential and the demand of unmet energy needs in a canal-corridor, using the Upper Ganga Canal in Uttar Pradesh, India as a case study. We consider the theoretical and technological potential of hydropower and solar power generation and develop three indices to assess the agricultural, domestic, and composite unmet power demand of the canal-corridor. Our results show an overall theoretical potential of 149.1 MW and 13,213 MW for small hydropower and solar power, respectively, which could more than help meet the current 18 hours per day electricity service standard in Uttar Pradesh. The framework uses standardized irrigation and census datasets and therefore is generalizable for canal networks across India and South Asia more broadly. • Irrigation canal energy technologies include small hydro and canal-top solar power. • Novel canal-network level framework for energy planning. • Integration of generation potential with local energy needs in a canal corridor. • Theoretical and technological potential of energy generation on canals. • Three indices for agricultural, domestic, and composite unmet power demand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Applying the fixed effects regression technique to the highly spatially disaggregated district-level data from 1966–67 to 2011–12 this paper has assessed the impact of heat stress on wheat production in India and concurrently evaluated the role of irrigation towards offsetting its harmful impact. It has brought out three key highlights. One, heat stress negatively impacts crop yield, and the impact has increased over time. Two, irrigation, besides its contribution towards improving crop yield, also moderates the harmful impact of heat stress, but over time its effectiveness has declined. Three, the measure of heat stress built on multiple aspects of excess temperature (i.e., intensity, persistence, and frequency) explains variation in crop yield better than does a single aspect of it. Given the increasing scarcity of irrigation water and rising temperature, these findings suggest the need for exploring technological and policy options for improving irrigation water-use efficiency and breeding of crops for heat tolerance and low water footprints. • Heat stress negatively impacts crop yield, and the impact has increased over time. • Irrigation partially offsets the negative impact of heat stress, but its effectiveness has slowed down over time. • The measure of heat-stress built on multiple aspects of excess temperature explains variation in crop yield better. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, photovoltaic (PV) systems have emerged as economical solutions for irrigation systems in rural areas. However, they are characterized by low voltage output and less reliable configurations. To address this issue in this paper, a promising inverter configuration called Impedance (Z)-source inverter (ZSI) is designed and implemented to obtain high voltage output with single-stage power conversion, particularly suitable for irrigation application. An improved and efficient modulation scheme and design specifications of the network parameters are derived. Additionally, a suitable fault-tolerant strategy is developed and implemented to improve reliability and efficiency. It incorporates an additional redundant leg with an improved control strategy to facilitate the fault-tolerant operation. The proposed fault-tolerant circuit is designed to handle switch failures of the inverter modules due to the open-circuit and short-circuit faults. The relevant simulation and experimental results under normal, faulty and post-fault operation are presented. The post-fault operation characteristics are identical to the normal operation. The motor performance characteristics such as load current, torque, harmonic spectrum, and efficiency are thoroughly analysed to prove the suitability of the proposed system for irrigation applications. This study provides an efficient and economical solution for rural irrigation utilized in developing countries, for example, India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]