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Aims: The experiment tested the effects of a web‐push survey research protocol, compared with the standard mailed paper‐and‐pencil protocol, among young adults aged 19–30 years in the 'Monitoring the Future' (MTF) longitudinal study. Design, Setting and Participants: The US‐based MTF study has measured substance use trends among young adults in panel samples followed biennially, using consistent mailed survey procedures from 1977 to 2017. In 2018, young adult participants in the MTF longitudinal component scheduled to be surveyed at ages 19–30 in 2018 (from high school senior cohorts of 2006–17, n = 14 709) were randomly assigned to receive the standard mail/paper survey procedures or new web‐push procedures. Measurements Primary outcomes were responding to the survey and prevalence estimates for past 30‐day use of alcohol, cigarettes, marijuana and illicit drugs. Findings The web‐push response rate was 39.07% [95% confidence interval (CI) = 37.889, 40.258]; this was significantly better than the standard MTF response rate of 35.12% (95% CI = 33.964, 36.285). After adjusting for covariates, the web‐push condition was associated with a 19% increase in the odds of responding compared with standard MTF (adjusted odds ratio = 1.188; 95% CI = 1.096, 1.287). Substance use prevalence estimates were very similar and differences became negligible when using attrition weights and controlling for socio‐demographic characteristics. Conclusions: The web‐push protocol produced a higher response rate than the mailed pencil and paper protocol in the Monitoring the Future panel study, without substantially affecting estimates of substance use once attrition weights and socio‐demographic variables were factored in. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studying ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) plays a crucial role in understanding animal communication, particularly in the field of ethology and neuropharmacology. Communication is associated with social behaviour; so, USVs study is a valid assay in behavioural readout and monitoring in this context. This paper delved into an investigation of ultrasonic communication in mice treated with Cannabis sativa oil (CS mice), which has been demonstrated having a prosocial effect on behaviour of mice, versus control mice (vehicle‐treated, VH mice). To conduct this study, we created a dataset by recording audio‐video files and annotating the duration of time that test mice spent engaging in social activities, along with categorizing the types of emitted USVs. The analysis encompassed the frequency of individual sounds as well as more complex sequences of consecutive syllables (patterns). The primary goal was to examine the extent and nature of diversity in ultrasonic communication patterns emitted by these two groups of mice. As a result, we observed statistically significant differences for each considered pattern length between the two groups of mice. Additionally, the study extended its research by considering specific behaviours, aiming to ascertain whether dissimilarities in ultrasonic communication between CS and VH mice are more pronounced or subtle within distinct behavioural contexts. Our findings suggest that while there is variation in USV communication between the two groups of mice, the degree of this diversity may vary depending on the specific behaviour being observed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The construction of parents' cannabis use in the context of child protection has far‐reaching implications for how their parenting is perceived and assessed and for the decisions made regarding their children's lives. Yet little is known about the meanings various stakeholders in child protection processes attribute to parents' cannabis use. This paper aims to explore constructions of parents' cannabis use in child protection court proceedings and position them within a political and social context. A qualitative data mining method was used to examine 32 Family Court judgements in care proceedings that involved parents using cannabis in England and Wales. The analysis of the judgements revealed that most portrayed parents' cannabis use as a negative, deviant and harmful activity. Three constructions of cannabis use were identified: cannabis use as a risk to children, cannabis use as proof of parents' deficits, and cannabis use as (responsible) self‐medication. The discussion considers the findings in light of two social and political processes that underpin child protection policy and practice: the adoption of a risk perspective and the manifestation of othering processes. Implications for policy and practice highlight the importance of developing a critical framework for responding to parental cannabis use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and aims: There are concerns that availability of recreational cannabis dispensaries (RCDs) and point‐of‐sale marketing may lead to increased cannabis use in jurisdictions where cannabis retail sale is legal. This paper examined whether the availability RCDs and the presence of storefront signage indicative of cannabis and signs promoting health benefits in RCDs were associated with cannabis use and risk perceptions. Design: Cross‐sectional, secondary data analysis. Setting: California, USA. Participants: A representative sample of 3385 adults in California who participated in the 2020 probability‐based Marijuana Use and Environment Survey. Measurements Binary outcomes included past‐month overall cannabis use, perceiving cannabis smoking as harmful and past‐month cannabis use by purpose (medical only, recreational only and dual). The objectively assessed predictors included proximity and density of RCDs and presence of storefront signage indicative of cannabis and signs promoting health benefits in RCDs. Findings In terms of proximity, thepresence of storefront signage in the nearest RCD was associated with smaller odds of perceiving cannabis smoking as harmful [odds ratio (OR) = 0.63, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.39, 0.99] if the RCD was located within 2 miles of home. Presence of health benefit signs in the nearest RCD was associated with greater odds of overall cannabis use (OR = 2.45, 95% CI = 1.17, 5.16) and recreational use (OR = 3.50, 95% CI = 1.027, 11.91) if the RCD was located within 2–4 miles of home. In terms of density, count of RCDs, count of RCDs with storefront signage and count of RCDs with health benefit signs within 2 miles of home were each separately associated with greater odds of overall cannabis use and cannabis use for dual purposes. Conclusions: The availability of recreational cannabis dispensaries within 2 miles of one's home and the presence of storefront signage indicating the availability of cannabis and signs promoting health benefits of cannabis appear to be associated with increased cannabis use and reduced risk perceptions among adults in California, USA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cannabis sativa L. is undoubtedly the most used recreational drug worldwide because of its desired acute psychotropic effects, like relaxation, euphoria and altered perceptions. In addition, promising medical properties of Cannabis components have gained a lot of attention, resulting in a debate to permit recreational Cannabis use in several countries. In recent years, this controversial plant was increasingly studied and a large number of scientific papers were published. Herbal Cannabis consists of a variable and complex matrix, which makes it challenging to properly seize and prepare the sample for qualitative and quantitative analysis. Moreover, both the adoption of legal cut‐off values in different countries for the Δ9‐tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content in seizures, and the emergence of cannabidiol (CBD) based products, containing generally small but variable amounts of THC, urged the need for sensitive and reliable analytical techniques to accurately identify and quantify the components of interest. This review presents detailed information on the procedure prior to analysis and covers chromatographic and spectroscopic methods developed for the analysis of cannabinoids in seizures for different forensic purposes, that is, identification/quantification, potency testing, drug‐ and fiber‐type differentiation, age estimation, yield determination and Cannabis profiling. Advantages and drawbacks of existing methods, within a specific forensic context, are discussed. The application of chemometrics, which offers a powerful tool in interpreting complex data, is also explained. This article is categorized under:Toxicology > CannabisToxicology > Drug AnalysisForensic Chemistry and Trace Evidence > Presentation and Evaluation of Forensic Science Output [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the quantitative structure‐activity relationship predictive models (QSAR) are presented: the prediction model for some of the main components of cannabis sativa, acute toxicity LD50 (n=45, r2=0.917, q2=0.902), chronic toxicity LOAEL (n=35, r2=0.911, q2=0.868), NOAEL(n=22, r2=0.964, q2=0.937), LOEL (n=26, r2=0.911, q2=0.863) and NOEL (n=25, r2=0.867, q2=0.802), in addition to carcinogenicity and mutagenicity effects. Only for the case of LD50, the values reported in the literature of the delta 9‐THC compound present in Cannabis sativa were taken into account and this model was applied to the other compounds present in the plant, which we consider the most relevant since they fell from the allowed domain for QSAR Toolbox to predict the LD50 of each of them, while the other additional endpoints were established according to the methodology that marks the QSAR Toolbox software. The application of these models and predictions allowed us to predict the permissible daily exposure (PDE) and acceptable daily intake (ADI) values of some of the cannabis components. This work aims to present important elements of the toxicology of some of the components of the plant that serve only as a reference and does not intend to favor or inhibit the use of cannabis for medicinal or recreational use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and aim: In Uruguay, residents age 18 and older seeking legal cannabis must register with the government and choose one of three supply mechanisms: self‐cultivation, non‐profit cannabis clubs or pharmacies. This is the first paper to measure the association between type of legal cannabis supply mechanism and traffic crashes involving injuries. Design Ecological study using ordinary least squares regression to examine how department‐level variation in registrations (overall and by type) is associated with traffic crashes involving injuries. Setting: Uruguay. Cases 532 department‐quarters. Measurements Quarterly cannabis registration counts at the department level and incident‐level traffic crash data were obtained from government agencies. The analyses controlled for department‐level economic and demographic characteristics and, as a robustness check, we included traffic violations involving alcohol for departments reporting this information. Department‐level data on crashes, registrations and alcohol violations were denominated by the number of residents ages 18 and older. Findings From 2013 to 2019, the average number of registrations at the department‐quarter level per 10 000 residents age 18 and older for self‐cultivation, club membership and pharmacy purchasing were 17.7 (SD = 16.8), 3.6 (SD = 8.6), and 25.1 (SD = 50.4), respectively. In our multivariate regression analyses, we did not find a statistically significant association between the total number of registrations and traffic crashes with injuries (β = −0.007; P = 0.398; 95% CI = −0.023, 0.01). Analyses focused on the specific supply mechanisms found a consistent, positive and statistically significant association between the number of individuals registered as self‐cultivators and the number of traffic crashes with injuries (β = 0.194; P = 0.008; 95% CI = 0.058, 0.329). Associations for other supply mechanisms were inconsistent across the various model specifications. Conclusions: In Uruguay, the number of people allowed to self‐cultivate cannabis is positively associated with traffic crashes involving injuries. Individual‐level analyses are needed to assess better the factors underlying this association. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/Aims: The COVID‐19 pandemic has significantly impacted face‐to‐face research. This has propelled ideas and plans for more remote styles of research and provided new perspectives on conducting research. This paper aimed to identify challenges specific to conducting remote forms of experimental addiction research, although some of these challenges apply to all types of addiction research. Argument The impact of the COVID‐19 pandemic has led to important lessons for future addiction research. Although remote research has been conducted for decades, little experimental research has been performed remotely. To do so require a new perspective on what research questions we can ask and could also enable preferential capture of those who may be more reluctant to engage in research based in clinical settings. There may, however, be crucial factors that will compromise this process. We illustrate our argument with three real‐world, ongoing case studies centred on gambling behaviour, opioid overdose, and cannabinoid psychopharmacology. We highlight the obstacles to overcome to enable more remote methods of study. Conclusions: The future of experimental research and, more generally, addiction research, will be shaped by the pandemic and may result in advantages, such as reaching different populations and conducting addiction research in more naturalistic settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses comments on a paper by S. Allaf and colleagues about the comparison of legal cannabis markets from various countries. Topics mentioned include the impact of the increase in acute cannabis poisoning in pediatric patients on the decision to legalize and decriminalize cannabis products, the ban of cannabis products with high content of tetrahydrocannabinol, and the advantages of regulations to minimize harm caused by cannabis products.

Background: Marijuana and alcohol are both substances that, when used during pregnancy, may have profound effects on the developing fetus. There is evidence to suggest that both drugs have the capacity to affect working memory, one function of the hippocampal formation; however, there is a paucity of data on how perinatal exposure to alcohol or cannabis impacts the process of adult neurogenesis. Methods: This systematic review examines immunohistochemical data from adult rat and mouse models that assess perinatal alcohol or perinatal marijuana exposure. A comprehensive list of search terms was designed and used to search 3 separate databases. All results were imported to Mendeley and screened by 2 authors. Consensus was reached on a set of final papers that met the inclusion criteria, and their results were summarized. Results: Twelve papers were identified as relevant, 10 of which pertained to the effects of perinatal alcohol on the adult hippocampus, and 2 pertained to the effects of perinatal marijuana on the adult hippocampus. Cellular proliferation in the dentate gyrus was not affected in adult rats and mice exposed to alcohol perinatally. In general, perinatal alcohol exposure did not have a significant and reliable effect on the maturation and survival of adult born granule neurons in the dentate gyrus. In contrast, interneuron numbers appear to be reduced in the dentate gyrus of adult rats and mice exposed perinatally to alcohol. Perinatal marijuana exposure was also found to reduce inhibitory interneuron numbers in the dentate gyrus. Conclusions: Perinatal alcohol exposure and perinatal marijuana exposure both act on inhibitory interneurons in the hippocampal formation of adult rats. These findings suggest simultaneous perinatal alcohol and marijuana exposure (SAM) may have a dramatic impact on inhibitory processes in the dentate gyrus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: We recently showed that alcohol and cannabis can interact prenatally, and in a recent review paper, we identified parvalbumin‐positive (PV) interneurons in the hippocampus as a potential point of convergence for these teratogens. Methods: A 2 (Ethanol [EtOH], Air) × 2 (tetrahydrocannabinol [THC], Vehicle) design was used to expose pregnant Sprague‐Dawley rats to either EtOH or air, in addition to either THC or the inhalant vehicle solution, during gestational days 5–20. Immunohistochemistry was performed to detect PV interneurons in 1 male and 1 female pup from each litter at postnatal day 70. Results: Significant between‐group and subregion‐specific effects were found in the dorsal cornu ammonis 1 (CA1) subfield and the ventral dentate gyrus (DG). In the dorsal CA1 subfield, there was an increase in the number of PV interneurons in both the EtOH and EtOH +THC groups, but a decrease with THC alone. There were fewer changes in interneuron numbers overall in the DG, though there was a sex difference, with a decrease in the number of PV interneurons in the THC‐exposed group in males. There was also a greater cell layer volume in the DG in the EtOH +THC group than the control group, and in the CA1 region in the EtOH group compared to the control and THC groups. Conclusions: Prenatal exposure to alcohol and THC differentially affects parvalbumin‐positive interneuron numbers in the hippocampus, indicating that both individual and combined exposure can impact the balance of excitation and inhibition in a structure critically involved in learning and memory processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Nationally representative data of cannabis–tobacco co‐use have shown that these substances are closely entwined and have significant adverse health consequences, although population‐level harms of co‐use are largely unknown. Current epidemiological research does not assess co‐use in a manner that has yielded the necessary data to draw conclusions regarding health effects. This has given rise to a hidden population of co‐users who go under‐served. Therefore, this paper has two aims: (1) to review new challenges in the collection of co‐use data due to rapidly changing regulations of cannabis and nicotine products and (2) to provide recommendations for the terminology and assessment of co‐use. Argument We argue that: (1) the prevalence of co‐use is not being assessed accurately at a population level and (2) changes in legalization have created novel challenges, but without proper monitoring the impact on co‐use will go undetected. We propose a three‐level tiered set of recommendations for co‐use assessments, which includes assessments of cannabis, tobacco and co‐use metrics ranging from least burdensome (self‐report of co‐administered products) to most burdensome (assays, event‐level data). Conclusions: We propose that clinical studies begin to incorporate cannabis–tobacco co‐use assessments to justify better their inclusion in clinical trials and national surveillance surveys. Integration of co‐use assessments will aid in understanding the true impact on co‐use of the changing cannabis and tobacco/nicotine regulatory environments. Co‐use is prevalent and problematic, and the ability to make conclusions about its health outcomes is hindered by lack of nuance in data collection. If you do not measure it, you cannot manage it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The overall prevalence of U.S. young adult alcohol use has decreased, but little is known about historical change in related behaviors such as simultaneous alcohol and marijuana (SAM) use that may increase alcohol‐related risks and societal costs. The purpose of this paper was to examine historical change in SAM use prevalence among U.S. young adult alcohol users from 1977 to 2016, and consider the extent to which observed historical change in SAM use among alcohol users reflects co‐occurring change in marijuana use during these years. Methods: Data on past 12‐month alcohol, marijuana, and SAM use at up to 6 modal ages (19/20, 21/22, 23/24, 25/26, 27/28, and 29/30) were collected from 11,789 individuals (45.0% men) participating in the Monitoring the Future panel study. Annual prevalence estimates within modal age group were obtained; historical SAM use trends among alcohol and marijuana users were estimated. Results: From 2014 to 2016, SAM use was reported by approximately 30% of alcohol users aged 19/20 and 21/22, and 20 to 25% of alcohol users aged 23/24 through 29/30. Since the mid‐1990s, age‐specific historical trends in SAM use prevalence among alcohol users followed 1 of 4 patterns: significant increase followed by oscillating increases/decreases (at modal age 19/20), consistent and significant increases (at modal ages 21/22, 23/24, and 25/26), stability followed by increase (at modal ages 27/28), or stability (at modal ages 29/30). In contrast, SAM use trends among marijuana users primarily reflected stability, with some evidence of a decrease across time at modal ages 19/20 and 23/24. Historical change in SAM prevalence among alcohol users was strongly and positively correlated with changes in overall marijuana use prevalence. Conclusions: A growing proportion of early and mid‐young adult alcohol users reported SAM use, with the highest risk among those in the early years of young adulthood. Young adult SAM use may continue to increase in proportion to the degree that young adult marijuana use continues to increase. This paper examined historical change in simultaneous alcohol and marijuana (SAM) use prevalence among U.S. young adult alcohol users from 1977‐2016. While the overall prevalence of U.S. young adult alcohol use has decreased, a growing proportion of early and mid‐young adult alcohol users reported SAM use, with the highest risk among those in the early years of young adulthood. Young adult SAM use may continue to increase in proportion to the degree that young adult marijuana use continues to increase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article comments on a paper by G. Bischof and colleagues on the secondary health impacts of people living and not living with a person's substance use disorder. Topics mentioned include the two elements that can show societal estimates of the people who are seriously affected with person's substance use disorder, the structural factors related to harm to others, and the effect of alcohol consumption.

Abstract: During the early 1970s Denise Kandel and her colleagues documented an ‘invariant sequence’ in initiation of drug use: starting with alcohol and tobacco, progressing to cannabis and then to other illicit, or ‘harder’ drugs. This observation, which became known as the ‘gateway sequence’ of drug use, has been influential in policy debates but remains highly contentious, with the area of greatest controversy focusing upon whether cannabis use increases risk causally for initiation of other illicit drugs. While numerous studies have replicated Kandel's initial findings (sequence of onset) and reported that associations between cannabis use and the use of other illicit drugs remain after controlling for potentially confounding factors, the mechanisms underlying these observed associations remain hotly debated. In particular, it is possible that the observed associations are non‐causal but reflect the influence of confounding factors which influence both early‐onset drug use and subsequent progressions. However, research employing a range of techniques to address this issue has been unable to discount the possibility that associations between earlier and subsequent drug use reflect causal processes. This paper reviews Kandel's ongoing contributions to this field, which span 45 years, and discusses both the influence of her work and the controversy that it has aroused. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives: Sleep disturbance is one of the hallmarks of cannabis withdrawal. Studies have indicated that treatment of this key symptom may facilitate abstinence. In the present paper we aim to provide a systematic review of the extant literature on pharmacological management of sleep disturbance associated with cannabis withdrawal.Method: We conducted a systematic literature search across five electronic databases including PubMed, Psycinfo, MEDLINE, Cochrane review and Embase. Human studies using a pharmacological treatment for sleep disturbances associated with cannabis withdrawal were included. Review articles, case-series, open trials, posters, and editorials were excluded.Results: Seventeen publications, involving 562 participants, were included in this review. Major limitations involved small sample size, high dropout rate, methodological limitations, and heterogeneity of participants. Most of the studies were at high risk of bias, further downgrading the level of evidence. A meta-analysis was not performed due to lack of quantitative data, marked heterogeneity and low quality of the included studies.Conclusion: There is not sufficient evidence for any of the reviewed treatment options. Methodological limitations in a majority of the studies rendered their findings preliminary. Of the twelve investigated pharmacological agents, Gabapentin, Lofexidine, Mirtazapine, Quetiapine, and Zolpidem showed some primary benefits for treatment of sleep difficulties associated with cannabis withdrawal; however, future prospective studies are required to confirm such results.Scientific Significance: This review examines the current evidence for potential pharmacological options for treatment of cannabis withdrawal and associated sleep disturbance. It furthers our knowledge and provides groundwork for future research. (Am J Addict 2018;27:453-464). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Marijuana policies are rapidly evolving. In the United States, recreational use of marijuana is now legal in 4 states and medical marijuana is legal in 23 states. Research evaluating such policies has focused primarily on how policies affect issues of price, access to, use, and consequences of marijuana. Due to potential spillover effects, researchers also need to examine how marijuana policies may impact use and consequences of alcohol. Methods The current paper is a critical review of articles evaluating alcohol outcomes associated with marijuana decriminalization, medical marijuana legalization, and nonmedical or recreational marijuana legalization. We identified articles and reports through (1) online searches of EBSCO host database including Academic Search Premier, Econlit, Legal Collection, Medline, PsycARTICLES, and Psyc INFO, as well as PubMed and Google Scholar databases; (2) review of additional articles cited in papers identified through electronic searches; and (3) targeted searches of state and local government records regarding marijuana law implementation. We reviewed studies with respect to their data sources and sample characteristics, methodology, and the margin of alcohol and marijuana use, timing of policy change, and the aspects of laws examined. Results The extant literature provides some evidence for both substitution (i.e., more liberal marijuana policies related to less alcohol use as marijuana becomes a substitute) and complementary (i.e., more liberal marijuana policies related to increases in both marijuana and alcohol use) relationships in the context of liberalization of marijuana policies in the United States. Conclusions Impact of more liberal marijuana policies on alcohol use is complex, and likely depends on specific aspects of policy implementation, including how long the policy has been in place. Furthermore, evaluation of marijuana policy effects on alcohol use may be sensitive to the age group studied and the margin of alcohol use examined. Design of policy evaluation research requires careful consideration of these issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: A major impediment to any nation abandoning the policy of drug prohibition has been the fact that international drug treaties to which the majority of United Nations (UN) member states are signatory prohibit the non‐medical use of amphetamines, cannabis, cocaine and heroin. The future of these treaties is now uncertain because of decisions by Uruguay, eight US states and Canada to legalize cannabis use. This paper: (1) provides a brief account of the international drug control treaties; (2) outlines the major criticisms of the treaties; (3) analyses critically proposals for treaty reform; and (4) provides a personal view on policies that nation states could adopt to minimize the harms from the use of cannabis, party drugs and hallucinogens, opioids, stimulants and new psychoactive substances. It is argued that: a major risk of cannabis legalization in the United States is promotion of heavy use and increased harm by a weakly regulated industry; some cautious national experiments with the regulation of party drugs and hallucinogens would be informative; a strong case remains for prohibiting the nonmedical use of opioids while mitigating the adverse effects that this policy has on opioid‐dependent people; stimulant legalization will probably increase problem use but prohibition is difficult to enforce, highlighting the urgency of finding better ways to reduce demand for these drugs and respond to problem users; and that it is unclear what the best approach is to reducing possible harms that may arise from the use of new psychoactive substances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Aims: To conduct a systematic review and meta‐analysis of studies in order to estimate the effect of US medical marijuana laws (MMLs) on past‐month marijuana use prevalence among adolescents. Methods: A total of 2999 papers from 17 literature sources were screened systematically. Eleven studies, developed from four ongoing large national surveys, were meta‐analyzed. Estimates of MML effects on any past‐month marijuana use prevalence from included studies were obtained from comparisons of pre–post MML changes in MML states to changes in non‐MML states over comparable time‐periods. These estimates were standardized and entered into a meta‐analysis model with fixed‐effects for each study. Heterogeneity among the study estimates by national data survey was tested with an omnibus F‐test. Estimates of effects on additional marijuana outcomes, of MML provisions (e.g. dispensaries) and among demographic subgroups were abstracted and summarized. Key methodological and modeling characteristics were also described. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta‐Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were followed. Results: None of the 11 studies found significant estimates of pre–post MML changes compared with contemporaneous changes in non‐MML states for marijuana use prevalence among adolescents. The meta‐analysis yielded a non‐significant pooled estimate (standardized mean difference) of −0.003 (95% confidence interval = −0.012, +0.007). Four studies compared MML with non‐MML states on pre‐MML differences and all found higher rates of past‐month marijuana use in MML states pre‐MML passage. Additional tests of specific MML provisions, of MML effects on additional marijuana outcomes and among subgroups generally yielded non‐significant results, although limited heterogeneity may warrant further study. Conclusions: Synthesis of the current evidence does not support the hypothesis that US medical marijuana laws (MMLs) until 2014 have led to increases in adolescent marijuana use prevalence. Limited heterogeneity exists among estimates of effects of MMLs on other patterns of marijuana use, of effects within particular population subgroups and of effects of specific MML provisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relationship between cannabis and psychosis and schizophrenia has tested the field of addiction for decades, and in some ways serves as measure of our ability to provide a credible contribution to public health. As cannabis is used widely, many people are interested in the risks the drug poses to mental health. This paper focuses upon a seminal study examining this, the trajectory of subsequent research findings and what this has meant for understanding and communicating risk factor information. These studies provided evidence of a dose-response relationship between cannabis and psychosis, and that for those individuals with schizophrenia cannabis exacerbated their symptoms. The findings fit with a multi-causal model in which vulnerability interacts with a precipitating agent to produce a disease outcome. Even though this is a common model in epidemiology, it has proved difficult to communicate it in this case. This may be because at a population level the increased risk is weak and the vulnerabilities relatively rare. It may also be because people bring strongly held preconceptions to interpreting a complex multi-causal phenomenon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and aims Prohibitions on producing, distributing and selling cannabis are loosening in various jurisdictions around the world. This paper describes the diversification of cannabis supply laws and discusses the challenges to and opportunities for learning from these changes. Methods We document changes in cannabis supply laws that de jure legalized cannabis production for medical and/or non-medical purposes (excluding industrial hemp) in Australasia, Europe, North America and South America. We also highlight challenges to evaluating these legal changes based on our experiences studying cannabis laws and policies in the United States. Findings As of August 2016, two countries have passed laws to legalize large-scale cannabis production for non-medical purposes at the national (Uruguay) or subnational level (four US states). At least nine other countries legally allow (or will soon allow) cannabis to be supplied for medicinal purposes. Most of the changes in cannabis supply laws have occurred since 2010. The data available in most countries are inadequate for rigorously evaluating the changes in cannabis supply laws. Conclusion The evidence base for assessing changes in cannabis supply laws remains weak. Efforts should focus upon collecting information about quantities consumed and market transactions as well as validating self-report surveys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aims In 2014 the legislature of Vermont, USA passed a law requiring the Secretary of Administration to report on the consequences of legalizing marijuana. The RAND Corporation was commissioned to write that report. This paper summarizes insights from that analysis that are germane to other jurisdictions. Method Translation of key findings from the RAND Corporation report to the broader policy debate. Results Marijuana legalization encompasses a wide range of possible regimes, distinguished along at least four dimensions: which organizations are allowed to produce and supply the drug, the regulations under which they operate, the nature of the products that can be distributed and taxes and prices. Vermont's decriminalization had already cut its costs of enforcing marijuana prohibition against adults to about $1 per resident per year. That is probably less than the cost of regulating a legal market. Revenues from taxing residents' purchases after legalization could be many times that amount, so the main fiscal cost of prohibition after decriminalization relative to outright legalization may be foregone tax revenues, not enforcement costs. Approximately 40 times as many users live within 200 miles of Vermont's borders as live within the state; drug tourism and associated tax revenues will be important considerations, as will be the response of other states. Indeed, if another state legalized with lower taxes, that could undermine the ability to collect taxes on even Vermont residents' purchases. Conclusions Analysis of possible outcomes if Vermont, USA, legalized marijuana reveal that choices about how, and not just whether, to legalize a drug can have profound consequences for the effects on health and social wellbeing, and the choices of one jurisdiction can affect the options and incentives available to other jurisdictions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction and Aims: Little is known about the spatial distribution of medical marijuana dispensaries, particularly whether or not sites are disproportionately located in minority or communities with younger populations. This paper will assess if there is a relationship between medical marijuana dispensaries and neighbourhood characteristics.Design and Methods: This study used an ecological, cross-sectional design of 1000 census tracts from Los Angeles city in 2012 to explore the relationship between neighbourhood sociodemographics, structural features of neighbourhoods and density of medical marijuana dispensaries. Locations of dispensaries were obtained through a premise survey of all listed dispensaries. Data on neighbourhood characteristics were obtained from Geolytics. The study used Bayesian conditionally autoregressive models that include controls for spatial heterogeneity to analyse the data.Results: Findings show that dispensaries are located in areas that allow for commercial establishments. Results indicate a positive relationship between dispensaries and percent commercially zoned, areas with highway ramp access, density of on- and off-premise alcohol outlets and percent Hispanic residents.Discussion and Conclusions: In sum, the findings suggest that, likely because of zoning regulations, dispensaries were located in primarily commercially zoned areas with greater road access (as measured by the presence of highway ramps). Given that areas with higher densities of dispensaries also have higher densities of alcohol outlets, future work should examine how this co-location affects neighbourhood problems such as crime and violence. [Thomas C, Freisthler B. Examining the locations of medical marijuana dispensaries in Los Angeles. Drug Alcohol Rev 2016;35:334-337]. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction and Aims: In recent years there has been growing concern about new psychoactive substances (NPS) designed to mimic the effects of established illicit drugs. This paper explores the patterns and correlates of NPS use in a sample of Australian students.Design and Methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted in Australia in 2014. Data were collected from 1126 students (mean age: 14.9 years) from 11 secondary schools. Students completed a self-report questionnaire assessing NPS use and knowledge, beliefs and intentions to use these substances. NPS users were compared with non-users and illicit drug users, who had not used NPS, in terms of gender, binge drinking, tobacco use, psychological distress and self-efficacy to resist peer pressure.Results: Of the 1126 students, 3% reported having ever tried NPS, 2.4% had used synthetic cannabis and 0.4% had used a synthetic stimulant. Analyses revealed that NPS users were more likely to have had an episode of binge drinking in the past 6 months, tried tobacco and had higher levels of psychological distress and lower perceived self-efficacy to resist peer pressure than non-users, but did not significantly differ from users of other illicit drugs.Discussion and Conclusions: NPS use appears to be uncommon among Australian school students. Although adolescents that do use these substances did not differ from students that had used traditional illicit drugs, both appear to be higher-risk groups of students than non-users. Our findings suggest that universal education about NPS be incorporated into existing drug prevention programmes, and that targeted NPS prevention may also be warranted among high-risk adolescents. [Champion KE, Teesson M, Newton NC. Patterns and correlates of new psychoactive substance use in a sample of Australian high school students. Drug Alcohol Rev 2016;35:338-344]. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In polyketide biosynthesis, ring formation is one of the key diversification steps. Olivetolic acid cyclase ( OAC) from Cannabis sativa, involved in cannabinoid biosynthesis, is the only known plant polyketide cyclase. In addition, it is the only functionally characterized plant α+β barrel ( DABB) protein that catalyzes the C2-C7 aldol cyclization of the linear pentyl tetra-β-ketide CoA as the substrate, to generate olivetolic acid ( OA). Herein, we solved the OAC apo and OAC- OA complex binary crystal structures at 1.32 and 1.70 Å resolutions, respectively. The crystal structures revealed that the enzyme indeed belongs to the DABB superfamily, as previously proposed, and possesses a unique active-site cavity containing the pentyl-binding hydrophobic pocket and the polyketide binding site, which have never been observed among the functionally and structurally characterized bacterial polyketide cyclases. Furthermore, site-directed mutagenesis studies indicated that Tyr72 and His78 function as acid/base catalysts at the catalytic center. Structural and/or functional studies of OAC suggested that the enzyme lacks thioesterase and aromatase activities. These observations demonstrated that OAC employs unique catalytic machinery utilizing acid/base catalytic chemistry for the formation of the precursor of OA. The structural and functional insights obtained in this work thus provide the foundation for analyses of the plant polyketide cyclases that will be discovered in the future. Data deposition Structural data reported in this paper are available in the Protein Data Bank under the accession numbers for the OAC apo, for the OAC- OA binary complex and , , , , , and for the OAC His5Q, Ile7F, Tyr27F, Tyr27W, Val59M, Tyr72F and His78S mutant enzymes, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction and Aims: Substitution is operationalised as a conscious choice made by users to use one drug instead of, or in conjunction with another based on: perceived safety, level of addiction potential, effectiveness in relieving symptoms, access and level of acceptance. Harm reduction is a set of strategies that aim to minimise problems associated with drug use while recognising that for some users, abstinence may be neither a realistic nor a desirable goal. In this paper, we aim for deeper understandings of older adult cannabis users' beliefs and substitution practices as part of the harm reduction framework.Design and Methods: We present selected findings from our qualitative study of Baby Boomer (born 1946-1964) marijuana users in the San Francisco Bay Area. Although the sample consisted of primary cannabis users, many had personal experience with other drugs throughout their lifetimes. Data collection consisted of an audio-recorded, semi-structured in-depth life history interview followed by a questionnaire and health survey. Qualitative interviews were analysed to discover users' harm reduction beliefs and cannabis substitution practices.Results: Study participants described using cannabis as a safer alternative for alcohol, illicit drugs and pharmaceuticals based on their perceptions of less adverse side effects, low-risk for addiction and greater effectiveness at relieving symptoms, such as chronic pain.Discussion and Conclusions: Cannabis substitution can be an effective harm reduction method for those who are unable or unwilling to stop using drugs completely. More research is needed on cannabis as a safer alternative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Griffith Edwards played an important role in cannabis policy debates within government advisory committees in the United Kingdom from the early 1970s until the early 1980s. This has largely been hidden from public knowledge by the confidentiality of these committee discussions. The purpose of this paper is to use Griffith's writings and the results of recent historical scholarship to outline the views he expressed, the reasons he gave for them, and to provide a brief assessment of his contribution to the development of British cannabis policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and aims Addictive behaviours are among the greatest scourges on humankind. It is important to estimate the extent of the problem globally and in different geographical regions. Such estimates are available, but there is a need to collate and evaluate these to arrive at the best available synthetic figures. Addiction has commissioned this paper as the first of a series attempting to do this. Methods Online sources of global, regional and national information on prevalence and major harms relating to alcohol use, tobacco use, unsanctioned psychoactive drug use and gambling were identified through expert review and assessed. The primary data sources located were the websites of the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) and the Alberta Gambling Research Institute. Summary statistics were compared with recent publications on the global epidemiology of addictive behaviours. Results An estimated 4.9% of the world's adult population (240 million people) suffer from alcohol use disorder (7.8% of men and 1.5% of women), with alcohol causing an estimated 257 disability-adjusted life years lost per 100 000 population. An estimated 22.5% of adults in the world (1 billion people) smoke tobacco products (32.0% of men and 7.0% of women). It is estimated that 11% of deaths in males and 6% of deaths in females each year are due to tobacco. Of 'unsanctioned psychoactive drugs', cannabis is the most prevalent at 3.5% globally, with each of the others at < 1%; 0.3% of the world's adult population (15 million people) inject drugs. Use of unsanctioned psychoactive drugs accounts for an estimated 83 disability-adjusted life years lost per 100 000 population. Global estimates of problem gambling are not possible, but in countries where it has been assessed the prevalence is estimated at 1.5%. Conclusions Tobacco and alcohol use are by far the most prevalent addictive behaviours and cause the large majority of the harm. However, the quality of data on prevalence and addiction-related harms is mostly low, and comparisons between countries and regions must be viewed with caution. There is an urgent need to review the quality of data on which global estimates are made and coordinate efforts to arrive at a more consistent approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims Drug policy strategies and discussions often use prevalence of drug use as a primary performance indicator. However, three other indicators are at least as relevant: the number of heavy users, total expenditures and total amount consumed. This paper stems from our efforts to develop annual estimates of these three measures for cocaine (including crack), heroin, marijuana and methamphetamine in the United States. Methods The estimates exploit complementary strengths of a general population survey ( National Survey on Drug Use and Health) and both survey and urinalysis test result data for arrestees ( Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring Program), supplemented by many other data sources. Results Throughout the 2000s US drug users spent in the order of $100 billion annually on these drugs, although the spending distribution and use patterns changed dramatically. From 2006 to 2010, the amount of marijuana consumed in the United States probably increased by more than 30%, while the amount of cocaine consumed in the United States fell by approximately 50%. These figures are consistent with supply-side indicators, such as seizures and production estimates. For all the drugs, total consumption and expenditures are driven by the minority of users who consume on 21 or more days each month. Conclusions Even for established drugs, consumption can change rapidly. The halving of the cocaine market in five years and the parallel (but independent) large rise in daily/near-daily marijuana use are major events that were not anticipated by the expert community and raise important theoretical, research, and policy issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author presents his thoughts on the paper "Potency Trends of Δ^9-tetrahydrocannabinol, Cannabidiol and Cannabinol in Cannabis in the Netherlands" by R.J.M. Niesink et. al. He compliments the study for its work on undermining reports regarding marijuana potency, stating that it provides hard evidence that can be used in marijuana policy debates.

Introduction and Aims: Given a scenario of intense discussion about the legal situation of cannabis users worldwide, this paper aims to investigate the role of cannabis within a drug use sequencing pattern.Design and Methods: Data came from a representative sample of college students from 27 Brazilian capitals (n = 12 711). We analysed the patterns of transition from/to the first use of cannabis to/from the first use of alcohol, tobacco and seven other illegal drugs. Survival analysis methods were used to analyse age of onset data on all potential drug pairs. Drugs that were not specified as the target drug pair tested in each survival model were included as time-varying covariates in all models.Results: We found significant transitions from alcohol [adjusted hazard ratio (aHR) = 1.41, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.15-1.73, P < 0.001] and inhalants (aHR = 1.56, 95% CI 1.26-1.93, P < 0.001) to cannabis. Moreover, we found significant transitions from cannabis to alcohol (aHR = 2.40, 95% CI 1.47-3.91, P < 0.001), cocaine (aHR = 7.47, 95% CI = 4.26-13.09, P < 0.001), prescription opioids (aHR = 2.16, 95% CI 1.29-3.63, P < 0.01) and tranquilisers (aHR = 1.51, 95% CI 1.11-2.06, P < 0.01).Discussion and Conclusions: Overall, our findings point to a strategic role of cannabis within drug first use sequence pattern. We had an important and unexpected finding-the bi-directional relationship between alcohol and cannabis. In addition, the first use of cannabis still precedes the first use of cocaine and non-medical use of tranquilisers and prescription opioids. [Castaldelli-Maia JM, Nicastri S, Cerdá M, Kim JH, Oliveira LG, Andrade AG, Martins, SS. In-transition culture of experimentation with cannabis in Latin American college students: A new role within a potential drug use sequencing pattern. Drug Alcohol Rev 2017;00:000-000]. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]