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Complexity is often regarded as a "problem" to solve. Instead of attempting to solve complexity, we follow systems engineering practices and switch back to the problem domain, where a major obstacle is the impossibility to universally define complexity. As a workaround, we explored complexity characterization and its existing shortcomings, including: lack of standardization, inconsistent semantics, system-centricity, insufficiently transparent reasoning, and lack of validation. To address these shortcomings, we proposed a compilatory framework to characterize complexity using the Five Ws information-gathering method. The answer to the WHO question proposed four complexity viewpoints; the answer to the WHY question proposed a two-dimensional structure for complexity drivers; and the answer to the WHAT question derived generalized complexity challenges. As a preliminary step to show the potential of the framework to characterize complexity, we used and validated it as a tool to structure general literature related to complexity. In general, our findings suggest that papers with complexity solutions do not frame their research within the complexity problem domain, hindering the contribution evaluation. Through the viewpoints, we identified general research gaps of six solution directions. From the drivers, we noted three observations in the discourse of complexity origins: (1) a system-driven tendency, (2) a preference for concreteness vs. abstraction, and (3) an unclear distinction between origins and effects. Through the challenges' findings we explored two hypotheses: (1) a system-centric preference; and (2) a solution-oriented vision, both of which were supported by the results (most challenges relate to the system viewpoint and challenges are defined based on solution directions). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a mechanism through which better solutions are developed, creativity is well-recognised as an important part of the engineering design process, but has to date largely only been studied in general or in early design process stages. This paper aims to study the occurrence of creative behaviour in engineering design with a particular focus on the later design process stages. Through the application of a detailed coding scheme to two studies of engineers' work, this paper identifies patterns in creative behaviour through the design process stages, creative approaches employed by engineers, typical types of creative task, and fundamental differences within creative behaviour between early- and late-stage design. This understanding is then used to form ten characterisations of engineer behaviour within late-stage design, early-stage design, and throughout the design process. These characterisations can be used to direct future research and to improve the design process and output through development of specific, effective design support methods, selected to be appropriate to the design stage and type of creative behaviour that occurs within. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Efficient planning of design processes is of critical importance to meet tight deadlines and budgets; and the development of process planning tools is a lively research area. This paper describes current planning practice in industry and the challenges associated with it. In industry, a multitude of plans are used in parallel each focussing on a different aspect. The units of planning and their resulting plans roughly fall into product plans considering cost, bill of materials and procurement considerations; process plans including different milestone, lead-times, task and activity plans; and quality plans. Over the course of a project, the same plan can serve as a prescriptive plan defining steps in the process, a target plan against which process is measured, and a record of the process. This paper argues that organisations work because individuals use more than one plan and have a tacit understanding of the relationships between these plans. Variations between different companies are discussed before the paper concludes with a reflection on implication for planning support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rather than developing methods to address problems as they occur, the effort in this paper is to formulate methods based on an explicit theory. Methods developed in this way have more scientific rigor because underlying propositions and assumptions are clearly articulated, thus the applicability and limitations of the methods are well defined. The underlying theory used in this work is that of affordance-based design, which has been developed by the authors in a recent series of papers, and is based in turn on the theory of affordances from perceptual psychology. This paper extends affordance-based design into prescriptive methods. A broad affordance-based design process is introduced together with methods for documenting affordances, methods for designing individual affordances, an affordance-based method for reverse engineering and redesign, the affordance structure matrix, and affordance-based selection matrices. Engineering examples used to illustrate the methods include the high level design of an automobile, comfort to automobile passengers, the meshing of gears, wear of gears, a vacuum cleaner, and automotive window switches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Infused design, introduced in the preceding paper, is a new methodology for design that opens up new channels of cooperation between designers from different engineering fields. The methodology enables an engineer from one engineering field to infuse his designs with the knowledge and experience of an engineer from some other field. During the “infusion”, the knowledge of the designers ascends to a common mathematical meta-level, consisting of discrete mathematical models-called combinatorial representations, and then descends to other disciplinary domains. All the domains that can be reached in this fashion are candidates to export knowledge for infusion. This sequel paper is aimed at unfolding the practice of the theory from part I by demonstrating four scenarios dealing with various design activities. The design scenarios studied in this paper expose novel cooperation channels between mechanical and civil engineers, and between mechanical and electrical engineers. Further applications of the proposed approach, including the pedagogical advantages it offers, are thoroughly discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper introduces infused design: an approach for establishing effective collaboration between designers from different engineering fields. In infused design, the design problem representation is brought up to a mathematical meta-level, which is common to all engineering disciplines. The reasoning about the problem is then done by using mathematical terminology and tools that, due to their generality, are the same for all engineers, disregarding their background. This gives engineers an opportunity to infuse their work with knowledge, methods, and solutions shared by specialists from other engineering fields. When these knowledge, methods, and solutions cross disciplinary boundaries, they are provably relevant to any problem in another domain to which it can be transformed. The suggested meta-level consists of general discrete mathematical models, called combinatorial representations (CR). Specific mathematical basis for the combinatorial representations chosen in this paper is graph theory although other representations are possible. We explain the theory of infused design and carefully contrast it with other approaches. This comparison clearly demonstrates the advantages of infused design and its potential. We conclude with several practical issues related to the introduction of infused design into practice and briefly discuss the role of information systems in infused design. A companion paper includes several examples that demonstrate the details of infused design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper argues that there is no shared understanding (i.e. an ontology) of the design activities that designers perform in the design process. Hence the purpose of the paper was directed towards identifying and classifying a generic set of design activities from published literature into what are referred to as design definition activities, design evaluation activities and design management activities. In an attempt to achieve a shared understanding of these activities, a set of consistent and coherent definitions of these activities are deliberated and presented. A knowledge level representation based on Newell’s Knowledge Level hypothesis governed by the Principle of Rationality is used to represent a design activity that is motivated by a design goal of that activity through which input knowledge is changed into output knowledge by the design agent’s knowledge. The ontological completeness, clarity and coherence of activities are evaluated through a protocol analysis and the design process in the domain of electronic design (in particular System-on-a-Chip designs (SoC)). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a mathematical framework for describing a variety of complex and practical design processes is developed. We demonstrate that our model has the desirable quality of representing several, seemingly distinct, approaches as instances of the same framework. In addition, General Design Theory is shown to be a special case of the proposed framework. Using simple examples throughout the paper, we also hint at the potential for the framework to serve as a basis for a descriptive study of design. Various design phenomena such as design failure, identification of design knowledge bottlenecks, and benefits of collaborative design could be understood using the proposed model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research conducted over the past decade has resulted in a suite of methods for robust design which can be applied during different design stages. These methods focus on reducing the sensitivity of the design to variation without removing its causes. In this paper we propose an additional and very powerful means for achieving robustness that complements other methods developed to date. We have called this approach “smart assemblies.” A smart assembly has features, not otherwise required by the function of the design, which allow the design to absorb or cancel out the effects of variation. This paper provides an introduction to smart assemblies. Specifically, we define passive and active smart assemblies and provide examples of each. We discuss the close connection between smart assembly design and exactly constrained design. We present an example from industry illustrating the benefits of exactly constrained smart assemblies. We discuss a design methodology for smart assembly design and present the beginnings of a classification system for 2D smart features. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract. This paper, written in memory of Professor Wolfgang Beitz,(n1) discusses some of the influences of the work undertaken in Germany on systematic engineering design, highlights differences between the language regions, and gives examples of design research and design education linked to Konstruktionslehre--the standard text on systematic engineering design for which Professor Beitz was most widely recognised outside Germany. The paper finishes with a plea for a greater exchange of ideas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduced nearly 25 years ago, the paradigm of mass customization (MC) has largely not lived up to its promise. Despite great strides in information technology, engineering design practice and manufacturing production, the necessary process innovations that can produce products and systems with sufficient customization and economic efficiency have yet to be found in wide application. In this paper, the state-of-the-art in MC is explored in the context of an envisioned MC development process for both the firm and the customer. Specifically, 130 references are reviewed within the process frameworks (Sect. 3) and/or to highlight opportunities for future development in MC (Sect. 4) based on the review. This review yields opportunities in four primary areas that challenge MC development: (1) customer needs and preference assessment tools, (2) approaches for requirement specification and conceptual design, (3) insights from methodologies focused on the development of durable MC goods and (4) enhancements in information mapping and handling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes an annotation model of digital design representations which aims to provide the design actors with a way to communicate more clearly in asynchronous situations. Our objective is to develop a model that improves design communication through the elicitation of knowledge related to the context of design. We present a case study based on our observations in an industrial vehicle company where we observed and analysed annotation practices during design reviews. The speech act theory is used in order to propose a model based on the concept of locutionary and illocutionary annotation acts, and annotation categories are drawn from cognitive approaches of design. An annotation scenario is then developed on the basis of the case study as an illustration of our model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper addresses the issue of assessing the performance of project risk management (RM) and knowledge management (KM) in engineering design projects. RMPASS, a new analysis method, which is easily applicable by practitioners, is presented. It uses not only subjective assessments but also objective project data in a description and an evaluation model. New RM and KM performance indicators are introduced. In a feasibility study, RMPASS was applied to three aerospace design projects. The results show that once a risk was identified, the RM ‘machinery’ worked well. Risk identification was the greatest challenge in the RM process, which can be supported by KM. Irrespective of avoidable problems (β-problems), a limit for risk identification appeared: 20% of the encountered problems could not have been anticipated in advance in the state-of-the-art aerospace new design projects examined (α-problems). This could be the uncharted ground that the company reclaims in new design projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an ethnographic study of knowledge reuse in the architecture/engineering/construction industry. Reuse occurs largely through social knowledge networks. Even when reuse from an external repository occurs, a human expert is needed to provide input on what to reuse and contextual information about the designs being reused. This is attributed to the effectiveness of internal knowledge reuse, the reuse of knowledge from one’s personal experiences. Internal knowledge reuse is effective because the designer can find items to reuse, and can recall the context of these items and can therefore understand them. This ethnographic study was used to develop a corporate memory, a rich, detailed repository of knowledge in context. The corporate memory will support finding and understanding. Understanding can be brought about by enabling the designer to explore the item’s context. This helps the designer to manage the tradeoff between productivity and creativity in deciding what to reuse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Arrow’s theorem poses limits to the translation of the different preference orders on a set of options into a single preference order. In this paper, I argue, against opinions to the contrary, that Arrow’s theorem applies fully to multi-criteria decision problems as they occur in engineering design, making solution methods to such problems subject to the theorem’s negative result. Discussing the meaning and consequences for engineering design, I review the solution methods to such problems presented in the engineering design literature in the light of the theorem. It appears that underlying such methods is a mix-up of two fundamentally different problem definitions, as the theory of multi-attribute preferences, which is often presented as an adequate approach for engineering design, in fact fails to address the Arrowian multi-criteria problem. Finally, I suggest ways how engineering design might adopt results from discussions of Arrow’s theorem elsewhere in resolving its multi-criteria decision problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this paper is to demonstrate how a combination of design optimization theory and methodology can be applied to large-scaled industrial systems to efficiently improve their performance, reduce their costs or improve other design objectives. The scheme described was developed when other conventional design and optimization strategies failed in efficiently optimizing an air-to-air missile design for Lockheed Martin Missile and Fire Control. The efficient design scheme was developed for the system using a combination of optimization and design of experiment techniques. It will be shown that multidisciplinary design optimization techniques can be improved with a dependency-tracking demand-driven language resulting in an attractive choice for solving industrial type design problems. The design methodology holds true even for systems in which a large number of disciplinary design and analysis software are integrated. One reason for the efficiency of the scheme is the parameterized dependency-tracking environment in which the optimizations are carried out. With the hybrid approach developed, combining exploration and optimization techniques with the unique dependency-tracking and demand driven features of the environment, it was possible to reduce the computational time by as much as 44%. The design scheme developed and presented can be used to improve the design and optimization process for numerous other engineering applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents and discusses the individual competence particularly required to work in project-organized product development. Individual competence encompasses the knowledge, skills and abilities to deal with issues related to organizational, social and technological factors involved in projects. The purpose has been to explore the competence required for project members at the operational level, and to explore the conditions for developing such competence. The study is based on a qualitative approach, with interviews as the tool for data collection. The study group comprised 54 respondents working in R&D departments within five large Swedish manufacturing companies. The findings reveal the need for project co-workers to be skilled in both practical and psychosocial aspects of co-ordination, time planning and control. The findings of the study demonstrate the importance of being able to cope with prescribed as well as unpredictable processes. They also indicate the effect of time on experience transfer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Engineering design research shows a rather fragmented, if not a chaotic, picture. But does it have a hidden order? Can we explore it, or should we impose a reasoning model? This paper looks for the answer in the purpose of engineering design. It is destined to sustain human existence and well being by virtual creation of artifacts and services for the society. To this end, the engineering design discipline should provide a proper body of knowledge. The design knowledge obtained by empirical exploration and/or rational comprehension should be transformed for practical/pragmatic deployment. It was assumed that this purposely streaming of design knowledge gives a unique rationale for engineering design research. Based on this, a framework of reasoning was constructed, including source, channel, and sink categories of knowledge and research of engineering design, respectively. Within each category, research domains, trajectories, and approaches were identified. The semantic relationships of domains, trajectories, and approaches form a hierarchical structure. The proposed framework enables a grounded argumentation about the order of engineering design research, as well as about the articulation of the engineering design knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The re-use of previous design knowledge is a potentially important way to improve design efficiency. To do so, both the product under study (product data) and the argumentation leading to it (process data) must be stored throughout the engineering design process. CAD systems do the former very well; the latter has to be developed. The objective of the paper is to contribute to a system able to capture design process rationale and make it available for re-use in the current design project or in further projects. The approach involves extracting elements of argumentation and maintaining connections between arguments, proposed solutions and decision-making contexts. Criteria exchanged between design participants leading to the acceptance or refusal of solutions are key clues to understanding design rationale. A descriptive model of a design process is proposed, based on features capitalising on the rationale of design: a conjecture (an element of a solution proposed for validation), a criterion (an element of evaluation of the proposal) and the interactions between them. Conjectures capture alternatives; criteria provide access to the rationale behind the alternatives. The model was validated by laboratory-based experimentation. A computer-aided tool supporting and analysing criteria–conjecture interactions was developed, focusing on the context of decision-making and currently available information. It comprises a database storing the interactions and five modules to process the data for use in a design context. The raw data in the database are abstracted into knowledge according to the manner in which a design engineer wants to retrieve and use it. This structure is represented in the form of a data-processing prototype. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]