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The British Expedition to Tibet of 1903-1904 represented the last major military operation of the Great Game, the broad cultural confrontation between the British and the Russians that contested the geopolitical space of central and high Asia for almost the entire nineteenth century, up until the St. Petersburg entente of 1907. The role assumed by the then Tongsa Penlop, Ugyen Wangchuck, as a mediator between the British and Tibetans during the Expedition, was critical. Among the Bhutanese nobles, Ugyen Wangchuck had emerged victorious from the Battle of Changlimithang in 1885 and in 1907 he was crowned as the first king of Bhutan. In the period between the military victory and his accession to the throne, the power of Ugyen Wangchuck had to be consolidated definitively in a country that was simultaneously involved in the geopolitical space of the Raj, to which it was linked by the Treaty of Sinchula of 1865, and in the cultural sphere of Tibet, its most profound and ancient spiritual heritage. This paper reconstructs through British archival documents an attempt carried out by the Bhutanese with the British -- in anticipation of Anglo-Tibetan negotiations -- to try to resolve the last internal tensions of Bhutan. Although strongly downsized, some ancient rivalries, like underground rivers, continued to run across the balances of power and the international role of the small Himalayan country at the beginning of the twentieth century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

National commemorations are historical events, too. While re-imagining the past to correspond with contemporary sentiments, they are themselves open to reinterpretation by future observers. The 50th anniversary of the 1916 Easter Rising was intended to be a liminal event, paying tribute to the veterans of the revolutionary generation while recalibrating the national narrative to be more conciliatory and less militaristic. Yet, the anniversary later became neglected as one of the sparks of the conflict in Northern Ireland and subsequently served as the grand negative example of what needs to be avoided during the preparations for the Easter Rising centenary in 2016. The organisers of this centenary eventually introduced a highly diverse programme that held inclusivity at its centre. Nonetheless, with Brexit or Covid-19 in mind, one might wonder what the afterlife of the centennial mosaic of narratives will look like. Will the popular success of the event last, or will it be overshadowed or even neglected in the future? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chester Alan Arthur was the twentieth-first president of the United States. His presidency, from 1881-1885, was unplanned and monumental, yet he is an often overlooked figure of history. When he is remembered, it is for domestic reform. Here his part on the international stage, through the events of the International Prime Meridian Conference in 1884 in Washington DC, an early success for international relations, and his part in the Berlin West Africa Conference of 1884-1885, through recognizing the Congo flag, are explored. How his character influenced his role, how it contrasted with Belgian King Leopold II, and Arthur's place in civil rights history is also examined, as well as the developing imperialism and Anglo-American order of the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Newly created institutions: the Japanese government and Diet brought Japan closer to the advanced modern countries, which was the goal of all the reforms the new government sought. This complex and difficult process has had positive results and has met the expectations of its creators. Among other things, the reformers succeeded in involving the entire population in the process of modernising the country. The purpose of the creation of the House of Peers was to involve the entire nobility, both court and military, in participation in governance. In addition, the reforms of the noble titles also brought together the court aristocracy and the military nobility. In addition, representatives of the former lower nobility were elevated to the level of the formerly high-ranking nobility as a reward for their contribution to establishing the new political order. The creation of modern governmental institutions was necessary above all to strengthen Japan's international position. The newly established Diet, although its powers were limited, was also of great significance in that it involved all sections of society in participating in the modernisation of the country, thus achieving in a relatively short period almost equal status with Western countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present article primarily deals with the personality of Sophia of Hanover and her claims to the succession to the English throne. Sophia and her descendants (specifically George I) were appointed by the Act of Settlement as heirs to the throne upon the death of Anne Stuart. The life of Sophia, as well as her relations with the English monarchs and the Stuart family as such, will be outlined through the memoirs not only of Sophia herself but also of her family members, as well as through the correspondence of Sophie herself, including the English monarchs of the period under review. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study is concerned with the political influence on late Merovingian episcopal hagiographic production and with the changes in the episcopal ideal. It focuses on how key elements such as the origins of the bishop, the manner of his induction into the episcopal office and the relationship between the bishop and the monarch, respectively the relationship between the performance of episcopal duties, political involvement and service at the court, are portrayed in hagiographic production. A method of comparative analysis of late Merovingian hagiographic production associated with Saint Arnulf of Metz, Audoin of Rouen, Eligius of Noyon, Aunemund of Lyon, Leudegar of Autun, and Praejectus of Clermont was applied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Elisabeth of Görlitz, granddaughter of Charles IV, married Anthony, Duke of Brabant. After his death at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, she was forced to take care of her own well-being while being yet again embroiled in Luxembourg’s politics. This study will therefore focus on the period of time the young widow attempted to cope with her new life situation, maintain a good political and economic position and find a new husband. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Throughout the whole existence of their Empire, the Romans used the divide et impera polity against the European barbarians. The Romans tried to prevent the establishment of larger and more powerful political entities which could endanger them. Simultaneously, they supported rivalry amongst the tribal chieftains and provided the friendly ones with gold and goods. The arrival of the Huns into Europe did not initially bring any change to this international system. Since the 420s the Huns unified their own tribe and created close alliances with other tribes in Middle and Eastern Europe. This alliance had at last the military power to clash with the Romans and disrupt Roman international order across Europe. Because the Hunnic military power was not sufficient, their state was more of a tribal confederacy than a hierarchical and tightly controlled empire. The Hunnic Empire was also a short-termed affair limited to Attila’s life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mutual relations between the Bosnian Kingdom and the Serbian Despotate can be observed in the period between 1402, when Prince Stefan Lazarević received the title of despot from John VII Palaeologus, until the Ottoman conquest of the Despotate in 1459. The most significant conflicts between Bosnian rulers and nobles with Serbian despots were fought over the rich Srebrenica silver mine. This town, with the fortress of Srebrenik, was located in the Middle Podrinje region, near the river Drina, which in this area represented the border between the two countries. The stronger economic rise of Srebrenica was followed during the 14th century when it gradually developed and became one of the most important mines in Southeast Europe. The seeds of the conflict around Srebrenica were sown by the Hungarian King Sigismund of Luxembourg. The Hungarian king first managed to get Srebrenica for himself, and then in the period 1411–1413, he handed it over to his vassal, despot Stefan. From this time until the end of the existence of the Serbian Despotate in 1459, Srebrenica changed its owner several times. Bosnian kings, nobles, and Serbian despots took part in the conflicts around Srebrenica, and in certain periods specific agreements were established regarding the ownership of this place, which brought in large revenues. A solid number of sources about Srebrenica have been preserved in the State Archives in Dubrovnik due to the fact that the Ragusan merchants and craftsmen saw great economic potential in this place and established a large colony. The interests of the Ragusan authorities were moving in the direction of obtaining timely information from this place, and they often sent delegations to conduct diplomatic negotiations with the local authorities regarding the status of their citizens in this place. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The following text examines fief holding by women in the surviving charters from Saxony from about the 11th to the beginning of the 14th centuries. Specifically, these are the areas around Harz delimited by the five bishoprics of Meissen, Naumburg, Hildesheim, Halberstadt, and Merseburg. The basis for analysis is collections of charters from these dioceses supplemented by the collections of charters from the two most significant noble houses active in this area — the houses of Ascania and Welf. The selection of sources and region is not a coincidence: It is probably where Eike von Repgow lived most of his life and wrote his Saxon Mirror (Sachsenspiegel), which significantly influences the modern study of medieval law. Through an analysis of the terminology associated with fiefs and feudal institutions in general, as well as through specific examples of fief holding by women, this study attempts to show that the limitations on a woman holding a fief as defined by Eike in the Saxon Mirror and largely accepted in the contemporary literature are not entirely consistent with the testimony of these diplomatic sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article deals with the views of Cosmas of Prague, the first Czech chronicler, on the role of the Church and its relations with the laymen. The Chronicle of the Czechs contains discreet but harsh critics against the so-called Gregorian Reform and its proponents. However, the dean of the Prague chapter shared with the latter the claim for a stronger independence of the Church and a clearer division between the religious and the secular worlds. Indeed, the chronicler criticized some of the bishops of Prague because they were mostly the servants of the Přemyslid princes at the expense of their episcopal duties. Moreover, he showed the damages caused by prelates who shared the way of life and the values of laymen, especially those who were from the Ducal dynasty. The Chronicle of the Czechs is also a mirror for the prelates of Prague and thus draws the portrayal of the ideal bishop, a figure embodied by Otto of Bamberg. This contribution is then aimed to show that the Chronicle is also a precious source of the Czech views on the major changes that occurred during the 11th and early 12th centuries in Latin Christianity. From Prague, the claims of Rome seemed quite absurd, but the Czech Churchmen shared the ideals of their Western contemporaries and were searching for a way to adapt them to the local situation and to put them into practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]