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Das hier betrachtete Quellenkorpus umfasst Urkunden, die zwischen dem 8. und 11. Jahrhundert im Gebiet von Benevento und Avellino von lokalen Notaren geschrieben wurden. Diese setzten Urkunden über Rechtsgeschäfte zwischen Privatpersonen auf und unterschieden sich dadurch von den scriniarii, referendarii, notarii und scribi, die, öffentliche' Urkunden am Hof der Fürsten und in der bischöflichen Kanzlei der Hauptstadt des Fürstentums ausfertigten. Im 10. Jahrhundert, jener Zeitspanne, auf die sich der vorliegende Beitrag konzentriert, gab es eine Entwicklung der dokumentarischen Praxis und Typologien: Der Formierungsprozess von bestimmten dokumentarischen Modellen kam damals zu einem Abschluss und es werden Transformationen erkennbar, die - wie etwa die Anwesenheit von Richtern bei der Rechtshandlung - für die cartula und das süditalische memoratorium charakteristisch werden sollten. Der dokumentarische Anhang enthält die Regesten der 48 im 10. Jahrhundert entstandenen Urkunden. Diese werden von einem historisch- diplomatischen Kommentar begleitet: Für jedes Dokument wird die Überlieferung und der gegenwärtige Aufbewahrungsort angegeben. Ebenso wird auf eine etwaige kritische Ausgabe verwiesen. Schließlich wird auf wichtige formale Charakteristika eingegangen, und zwar auf die Datierungsformel, die Actum-Formel, sowie, falls vorhanden, auf die Namen der Rogators, des Richters und der Subskribenten. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Border delimitations and border disputes were an important part of the early modern process of state formation and the consolidation of power. As such, they are often taken into consideration when studying political and dynastic issues, such as succession disputes, while maps are frequently studied as a form of visualisation to depict territories and borders. So far, however, neither the administrative activities involved in these processes nor the border treaties (Grenzrezesse) which constitute the most important type of source for this area of research have been studied. The aim of this paper is to examine this topic using the principality of Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel as an example. This principality saw the creation and later on the expansion of administrative structures concerned with border issues from the 16th century onwards. The central aspect analysed in this paper is the process of how border disputes were settled. This was mostly achieved through border commissions. Each party involved in the conflict assigned representatives, both officials of the administrative institutions responsible for border issues (Grenzbehörden) as well as privy councillors (Geheime Räte) to serve as commissioners on these commissions. The result of their work were border treaties. These include narrationes explaining the circumstances of the conflict and of the commission, while the dispositiones comprise the articles listing the terms that had been agreed upon. Compared to administrative records pertaining to border disputes (Grenzakten), border treaties generally offer more information. This is why, when researching these phenomena, this distinctly early modern type of charter is of particular importance. It can serve as a compendium of an entire border dispute and, if there is a proper archival description, as a sort of finding aid for the record in question. This paper therefore also analyses the history of the development of this type of charter. Boundary maps, the third type of source discussed served to visualize and delineate the demarcation of borders, but seem to have been of rather minor importance at the time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How do we view on archival records? Traditionally, we consult archival materials in reading rooms. This traditional setting has changed fundamentally since archival documents are also displayed on screens. Although there are many similarities between paper and the screen, there is one crucial difference when it comes to digital images of archival documents: digital images are nothing more than computer graphics. This opens up a fascinating world with countless possibilities for image manipulation. In this paper, we will look at some of the disruptive consequences of this technological paradigm shift. To this end, we present various digitization techniques used at the State Archives of North Rhine-Westphalia on an archival collection consisting of early modern records that were severely damaged during World War II (Landesarchiv NRW, Abteilung Rheinland, RW 1001 Reichsstadt Aachen, Akten Nr. 55a 77b). Many of these documents have washed-out texts due to water exposure. By using advanced digitization technologies such as multispectral imaging, we are attempting to restore digitally the writing and make the invisible text visible again. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article comprises two sections. The first section opens with an explanation of why the work concerned with supplementing and completing the existing regesta of Sigismund of Luxembourg's charters, which was started at Regesta Imperii in 2004, was abandoned in favour of a comprehensive revision. Following this, the paper gives a description of the development of the various projects in Vienna, Brno and Munich from 2004 to 2022, the progress which has already been made, both with regards to archival research and to the work on the abstracts themselves, as well as current plans for the future of the project. The first section concludes with an overview of how the guidelines for the creation of abstracts used in the Sigismund Project have evolved during this time. The second section of this paper includes the current version of these guidelines, which was written by the author himself in 2019. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

More than 70 years have passed since Philippe Lauer published his edition of the 130 royal diplomas of Charles III the Simple (893/898-923). Since then numerous studies of these diplomas have been brought forward, concerning their genuineness, interpolations, datings, identifications of places and more. This paper unites these studies and adds further thoughts, thus providing comments on no less than 47 charters, acting as a supplement to Lauer's edition: Four deperdita are added to the collection. Seven diplomas thought to be genuine by Lauer are identified as forgeries, while in turn three supposed forgeries are shown to be genuine. Four more diplomas contain interpolations and another two were rewritten at a later point. Datings of a further 18 diplomas are corrected, as are the places of issue of another 13. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper addresses the early years of the Westphalian bishopric of Minden. Kölzer's edition of Louis the Pious's diplomas has shed new light on the founding era of the Saxon and Westphalian bishoprics, and the coming years will see a new understanding of the emergence of dioceses in these regions. Minden presents a special case in this respect, because early diplomatic evidence is lacking. This paper argues that the earliest royal diploma goes back to Charles III (876-887), and must have been nearly identical to his diploma for the bishopric of Paderborn from 887 September 21. The evidence of the necrologies is concentrated on the monastery of Fulda, and attestations of early bishops of Minden there are extremely meagre. Only Bishop Dietrich (853-880) is mentioned repeatedly during his lifetime as an attendee of royal meetings and synods. This paper also studies Louis the German's visit to Minden in 852, before turning to the problem of the alleged first bishop of Minden, Erkanbert († 830), who obviously did not act as a bishop 'of' Minden but rather as a (missionary) bishop 'in' Minden during the decades prior to the establishment of a geographically fixed bishopric of Minden. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to examine the use of charters during the early modern period. The Cistercian monastery of Mariental near Helmstedt, which became part of the principality (Fürstentum) of Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel in 1571, has been chosen to serve as a case study. Due to its valuable assets in the eastern parts of the Holy Roman Empire, i.e. in the Hochstift Halberstadt and the Prince-Archbishopric (Erzstift) of Magdeburg, it was constantly involved in legal disputes with these territories throughout the early modern period. These disputes must be considered in the context of the state-building process of the time. Charters were the most important evidence which could be provided to prove rights of possession and were therefore studied by archivists and lawyers. Specialised methods of handling these sources were developed and refined in the 17th century. When studying a document, the decisive goal was not so much to determine its authenticity, but rather to collect and arrange the relevant information in order to provide proof of the monastery's rights. In addition to the legal appraisal of the Mariental documents, they were used as sources for historiographical texts by scholars of the University of Helmstedt as early as the 16th century. While these two approaches - the historiographical and the jurisprudential - both had a mutual influence on each other, it was mostly the historiographical approach which was informed by the jurisprudential one. The latter went on to have a marked influence on how information was presented in historiographical writings in the 19th century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the first patents of nobility (Adelsbriefe) in the Holy Roman Empire were granted as early as the 14th and 15th centuries, they are essentially an early modern genre of charter that has been insufficiently studied until now. The aim of this paper is to analyse both the patents of nobility themselves as well as the process of creation and authentication. This process was one of cooperation between the person seeking to have a title of nobility conferred on themselves, the emperor and the territorial lord (Landesherr). In many cases, it is not possible to clearly distinguish between the acts of ennoblement (Nobilitierung) and of elevation to a higher rank (Standeserhöhung). Both were initially requested from and approved by the emperor, but subsequently had to be confirmed by the respective territorial lord. During the 17th century, a structured procedure of recognition emerged, which is examined in this study using the Principality of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel as an example. The approval of both the emperor and the territorial lord were usually granted, but did not guarantee that the newly ennobled person's would be accepted by their peers. Of course, the initiative almost invariably came from those wishing to be ennobled. Over the course of the early modern period, the forms used for patents of nobility underwent marked changes. The narratio, in particular, was progressively tailored to fit each individual applicant, although it must be noted that these phrases which, however, only reflected the image the applicant wished to convey. After 1806, the German princes were able to issue patents of nobility independently and the forms used in these documents became increasingly abbreviated and less specific to the applicant in question. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses the early years of the Westphalian bishopric of Osnabrueck (today: Federal State of Lower Saxony). Following the results of Kölzer's edition of Louis the Pious' diplomas it attempts to show that the early Carolingian diplomas due to their falsification without any exception do not allow any reasonable reconstruction of Osnabrueck's first decades. The lack of any historiography prior to the years of bishop Benno II (1068-1088) and the very few references to Osnabrueck's bishops outside of the bishopric during the 9th century do not allow a reconstruction of an episcopal succession either. Recent archaeological excavations in and around the cathedral building and the adjacent cloister add some new light on building activities since the late 8th century. So, the recent study of Mehdorn on missionaries and missionary bishops in Saxony up to the middle of the 9th century offers a reliable explanatory model even for the Osnabrueck case: The supposed first bishops Wiho and Meingoz obviously did not exist at all, since their only mentions derive from falsifications of the 11th century. Gefwin (since 829 or slightly earlier) appears to have been the first missionary bishop acting ,in' Osnabrueck and Gauzbert (845-c.859) obviously is the first bishop ,of' Osnabrueck who in 848 obtained the first diploma of immunity by Louis the German. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the changes of the papal bullae between around 1100 and 1530. Pope Paschal II (1099-1118) was the first to use a leaden bulla showing all the elements that were to become common in the period before 1464. However, Paschal II and his successor Calixtus II still used another dies for a more elaborate seal until 1124. After that time, the bullae remained almost unchanged, but the lettering of the popes' names was increasingly modernised, especially in the decade after 1281. A first example showing heraldic patterns appeared when Pope Clement VI (1342) had his name framed by little roses that resemble his coat of arms. Urban VI (1378) even had two different bullae showing heraldic eagles imported from his coat of arms, whereas his opponent Clement (VII.) used a fleurde- lys pattern, probably hinting at his French royal ancestry. Later, seals became more sober, only Gregory XII had little eyes placed around his name. For a time after the Great Schism a rather traditional bulla was used but then some details were modernised. In 1464 Paul II radically changed the whole seal, but his successors returned to the old pattern in a new style. Obviously, Renaissance medallists reintroduced the papal arms in the bullae in 1503, but on the apostels' side. For Hadrian VI, there are first clues for a gilded leaden seal and his successor Clement VII used two different types of golden bullae. In addition to this, the paper identifies some counterfeit examples, and written sources regarding the bullae, like critical views on the innovations or texts on their making, are examined as well. All attempts to introduce new patterns into the bullae were constrained or at least perceptibly decelerated by the recipients, who preferred the traditional appearance. Thus, the development of papal seals as a means for legitimation was controlled by the external expectations of the outward world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The presented paper is concerned with the documents and office of John of Görlitz (1370-1396), the youngest son of Emperor Charles IV, to whom his father designated a rather strange territory in the northern part of the Lands of the Bohemian Crown (the eastern part of Upper Lusatia - i.e. the newly established Duchy of Görlitz, the eastern part of Lower Lusatia and the most northerly part of Brandenburg - the so-called New Mark), in which he ruled as a liegeman of the King of Bohemia, Wenceslas IV. John's office was constituted after the year 1382. In total, we have managed to trace 106 documents issued by John, which are now scattered in various archives of Central Europe. This paper focusses on the typology of the documents issued by him, the external and internal features of the documents (the form template, the language) and of documents that emerged outside his office. Both seals that he used during his life as well as a false document are processed in detail. In the second part of the paper, we are concerned with the composition of his office, which was headed by Olbram of Škvorec, the future archbishop of Prague. John's office was a relatively small office with regards to its documental production as well as the number of staff. In its operation, we can clearly see the influence of the chancery of the kings of Bohemia (in particular the form templates and the arrangement of the office notes). Its practice was also affected by certain modern elements of the late medieval office (management of the registers). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper reviews research approaches to papal charters and letters from the early middle ages up to the pontificate of Boniface VIII recently achieved by German scholars. The studies are influenced by institutional traditions particularly facing the enormous quantity of charters estimated up to 30,000 pieces from the very beginning to 1198. Not until this year we are in the position to consult papal registers. By then we depend on documents bequeathed in the archives of the recipients. The Göttinger Papsturkundenwerk and the Pius-Stiftung are the central institutions to register all papal charters before 1198 in the Regesta Pontificum Romanorum organized by dioceses which means by recipients. Their research, especially in the last years, was exceedingly productive, but a lot is still to do. However, the volumes do not provide any edition of pieces. Calendars (German: "Regesten") are a very German way to deal with sources. Papal charters generally find their destination in a calendar - royal and other charters in editions, accompanied by studies of the chancery, formulations etc. And by this there is less research done on papal documents than on royal diplomas. Regardless of this baseline there have been many initiatives for a new look on papal documents in the last few years, focussing on language in papal documents, its juridical content, and at last the material of the period before the synod of Sutri to show the enormous influence of the recipients on these documents. But the following period up to Boniface VIII is covered, too, underlining new aspects in the analysis of the material, its measure, space and writing, different forms of papal letters and even of the persons writing them, and new stimuli for an epistology of papal letters - and last but not least the methods of the digital humanities, used for their analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article aims at establishing the real contribution polyhistor Benjamin Hederich (1675-1748) made to the genesis and evolution of the so-called auxiliary sciences of history, at a time when these subjects were being developed and defined. By analyzing the contents of his Anleitung zu den fürnehmsten Historischen Wissenschaften in relation to the rest of his works, we are able to understand his conception of what were to become the auxiliary sciences of history, his achievements in elaborating this category of scientific subjects and what separates his notion of what constitutes the auxiliary sciences from the modern one. The present paper also gives an unprecedented chronology of the history of the text and casts light on various aspects of Hederich's methodology and fields of study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper has been to gain an insight into the nature of medieval Serbian royal documents and the circumstances of their creation as well as to propose a reconstruction of the organisation and modus operandi of the scribal service that produced them. Due to specific historical and scholarly factors, the results are based primarily on an analysis of the internal features of the documents and on a comparison with selected "chancery models" from Western Europe and Byzantium. The analysis concerns the area of medieval Serbia in the period when the surviving material was created (late 12th - mid-15th c.). For this period of time, 325 relevant documents (charters als well as letters) were identified. The term "chancery" is used purely in accordance with convention, not only because it finds no support in the sources, but also due to results of the research: these require an understanding of the phenomenon of the Serbian royal chancery as a pre-bureaucratic structure, in which improvisation and ad hoc solutions in drawing up and issuing documents were much more the rule than the exception. A marked preponderance of charters over letters reveals the importance of the former as unique and permanent proofs of ownership or of a granted right. Analysis of the originals (about 55 % of the material) and secondary tradition shows both that the issuers made neither copies nor registers of the documents, and that a considerable share of diplomatic production lied on recipients. According to its effects and scope, the documentary practice was not operated by an organisational unit of the state apparatus, but depended mostly on the ruler's active political involvement in a given area and on various given factors. In terms of its output, the Serbian "chancery" lagged far behind the contemporary, or even much older, European comparative models. Being inseparable from the person of the ruler, the "chancery" also acted partly by means of oral orders and agreements. Its formal framework, such as places of issuing and creators of documents, as well as their selected internal features (proems, intitulationes, signatures) also give an accurate representation of the diversity of form and content. Members of the ruler's entourage of different ranks and responsibilities (scribes, logothetes, protovestiarioi, noblemen, clerics) have been identified as having been involved in the production of diploma. They operated as needed and depending on the nature of a given legal transaction and the individual recipients. Indeed it is not until the mid-14th c. that the first traces of an organised structure headed by a logothete becomes discernible. This logothete, as "first minister", was responsible for relations with major domestic and foreign powers. Yet, not even then did this flexible writing office deem it necessary to standardise its own "products", but continued to use a more pragmatic approach. This is especially noticeable in the Greek and Latin documents, which were drafted entirely in conformity with the Byzantine and Western patterns respectively. In the period of political crisis before the Ottoman conquest, there was no time left for the royal chancery to develop into an institution comparable to contemporary models existing elsewhere in Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper surveys current trends in sigillography and the display of seals in the public sphere. A look at recent exhibitions, together with their catalogues, shows that seals can play an effective role in visualizing historical subject matter to the public. The growing number of sigillographic studies, especially since the 1990s, reveals the increased interest seals have come to enjoy in the academic community, particularly in France and in Anglophone regions. At the same time, there is a need for more catalogues to provide researchers with the visual material necessary to pursue their studies. In terms of content, seals are increasingly seen not only as objects not of legal history, but also of social, cultural, religious and economic history. More recently, they have been the subject of interdisciplinary studies: The involvement of art historians has led to a more interdisciplinary approach, while that of natural scientists such as forensic experts has led to an increased interest in the process of sealing. Both of these trends, together with a growing tendency to look beyond the seals of elites and consider those from other social strata, communes and institutions are part of a larger interest in 'decoding' the mechanisms of the practice of sealing. This is further aided by endeavours to establish a theoretical foundation for the subject of sigillography. The establishment of a network of (young) researchers as well as continued interest in the subject, not least by early-career researchers, mean that there is cause for optimism, for seals do indeed have a future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper elaborates upon and attempts to contextualise an intensive debate that unfolded in 2015 over the basic historical sciences. These had been put on the defensive by job cuts and a reduction in their share of the historical curriculum, even as the importance of these subjects for external funding, the practical application of curricular material and the further development of and research upon digitized source materials (available in ever larger quantities) received increased emphasis. It is moreover worth emphasizing that the research at the centre of the basic historical sciences continues to attract a gratifying amount of attention from the press. Thanks to the enormous interest of junior researchers, these sciences are well represented in the new media. Research networks, funding programs and job postings all give reason to hope that the basic historical sciences once again rest on a firm basis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper studies the two-faced seal of William, Duke of Normandy and King of England. On the obverse, as a representation of his power and reputation, William placed the image of a rider on a horse, who is labelled in the legend as patronus of the Normans. On the reverse, William showed himself as a king seated on a throne, recalling similar imagery of King Edward the Confessor - an iconographic choice that scholars have carefully studied. The present study therefore focuses on the obverse, presenting a new interpretation by analysing the circumscription together with the details of the image (horse, rider, lance with flag, shield) and their meaning. In order to understand the iconography it is necessary to show the development of equestrian statues from the Roman era through the 10th century. The adoption of ancient imperial symbols and the flag of St Peter in connection with the circumscription emphasizes the position of the duke as a royal personage. The image of a mounted duke with a flag on a lance was unique at that time and came to serve as a model for the seals of the aristocracy in France and the Holy Roman Empire. Years later this motif had to compete with that of a riding warrior brandishing a sword, derived from Byzantine portrayals of Saint George. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For the papal chancery, the twelfth-century rise of literacy and administative technique caused new challenges with respect to the keeping of secrets. The more people became involved in decision making and had access to critical documents, the more critical information was likely to be leaked to representatives of other European powers. Focusing on the late twelfth to early fourteenth centuries, the paper sets out to describe the methods used by the apostolic chancery to keep documents confidential. The method of choice seems to have been to keep the number of people involved in an issue as small as possible. In rare cases, the pope wrote a letter with his own hand, sometimes sensitive matters were entrusted to high officials of the Curia; more often, as can be seen from chancery marks, the engrossing of such documents was comitted to trusted officials of the chancery. During the pontificate of Benedict XII, this focus on personal trust resulted in the emergence of new organisational structures, thus moving the responsibility for the issue of political correspondence away from the chancery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent studies by J. Nelson, A. Scharer and G. Koziol argued convincingly that some Carolingian rulers were directly involved in the drafting of charters, letters, or capitularies. Louis the Pious has not yet been the object of a similar study, presumably because many historians still cling to the idea that he was dominated by his clerical advisors. In the new edition of his charters, personal expressions are regularly explained away by the idea that such irregularities are due to a draft by the recipient („Empfängerdiktat”) or by one of his advisors. The same is true for one of his most programmatic documents, the preface to his capitularies of 818/819, which is generally held to be written by his advisors. The paper intends to question this assumption by analysing the wording and reasoning of the preface and by comparing it with other documents emanating from his court. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Die Schreiber der päpstlichen Kanzlei unter Papst Innocenz III. Versuch eines ersten Überblicks/The scribes of the papal chancery during pope Innocent III's pontificate. A first attempt at a synoptic view. Early in his pontificate Innocent III introduced some fundamental changes concerning the processing and issuing of papal chancery documents. Among these changes is the addition of chancery marks on the documents, above all short marks indicating the name of the scribe who engrossed the respective letter. Although these marks are abbreviated they allow for the first time for a closer look at the chancery and its staff. How many scribes were active, who were they, how were they paid, did they belong to the social networks inside the papal curia, did they follow a certain career path? On the basis of a sample of some 370 documents dating from Innocent III's pontificate, collected in the „Index Actorum Romanorum Pontificum", the Schedario Baumgarten and other sources, this paper explores the methodological implications of these questions, tries to give first answers and to suggest perspectives for further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Clm. 28193 is the signature under which a manuscript containing judical papers and texts from 14th century Italy can be found in the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, München (Bavarian State Library in Munich). The manuscript contains a collection of formulas for procurators entitled "Forma faciendi libellos procuratorios" (a repertory for procurators about the creation of libel-writs). This essay compares the collection with other judicial works from the 13th/14th century, which contain similar formulas. By giving examples concerning episcopal elections and marriage trials, this article demonstrates that the schemes of the collection resemble procuratory formulas in works such as the "Speculum" by Guilelmus Durantis and the "Libelli iuris canonici" by Roffredus Beneventanus. It therefore concludes that the collection is for procurators, to be used as a judical guideline for preparing the libel, a category of texts still little studied, but whose exploration could add to our knowledge of the beginnings of Roman canon law trials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses some of the reasons why medieval European kings (and emperors) chose their image on their coins. Even though the imperial portrait was predominant on roman coins, medieval rulers usually chose their name or their monogram, especially in the Early Middle Ages. While Charlemagne minted only a few coins with his image, in order to represent romanitas, Frankish traditions and Christianity all at once, the Anglo-Saxon King Offa used his image to claim supremacy over all the other Anglo-Saxon Rulers. When Edgar reformed the English coins in 973, the now exclusive use of his image not only expressed his claim to overlordship, but to being the only king in England now - and one anointed by God. The Ottonian and Salian Kings wanted to legitimise their kingship in order to counteract the pursuit of the ecclesiastical and secular princes of the realm to gain more power. And, finally, Philip the Fair minted his image on the newly introduced gold coins in times of economic and political crisis, styling himself as a/the numinous ruler. The king's image offered the chance to convey specific messages far more precisely than using the king's name, monogram or other royal symbols. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]