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Blue-green infrastructure (BGI) is an urban planning approach to hydrological issues that recognises the benefits of using urban green space and naturalised water flows. This process falls under the umbrella of "nature-based solutions" (NBS), i.e., the intentional inclusion of natural system processes within the urban fabric to achieve a range of benefits, including ecosystem services, climate adaptation and mitigation. The planning, design and management of BGI is complex, with multidimensional factors and interactions spanning various fields and disciplines. This complexity can present an obstacle to the adoption, implementation and mainstreaming of the approach. One of the emerging issues and challenges is to understand how diverse stakeholders respond to BGI and how decision makers can comprehend and use such responses. A tool supported by a body of theoretical knowledge is proposed to facilitate the research and investigation of unknown fields. Based on an integrative literature review, this paper formulates an attitudinal analytical framework (AAF) for understanding the human-BGI relationship. The established AAF synthesises, into a framework, multidimensional perspectives and integrates subject-, object- and context-related factors that can influence people's attitudes towards BGI. The proposed AAF bridges disciplinary boundaries, embracing the potential symbiosis among humans, BGI and place. This paper contributes to BGI adoption by forming the basis for further inter- and transdisciplinary research and practices of BGI. Its significance lies in establishing a theoretical framework to better our understanding of the human-BGI relationship, which is a prerequisite to the successful implementation of effective BGI, thereby promoting climate-resilient cities. • Establishing an integrative framework for understanding the relationship between humans and blue-green infrastructure (BGI). • Synthesising the factors from multifaceted aspects to understand the human-BGI relationship • Highlighting the relations between subject, object, and their applied context • Contributing to BGI research and practice as a tool to unravel stakeholders' attitudes towards BGI [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In response to the challenges posed by the fragmentation of habitats and loss of native biodiversity, climate change adaptation and mitigation, diverse agri-environmental measures have been initiated across the European Union (EU) with the aim of fostering agricultural ecosystem service delivery. Previous studies adopting a governance perspective have identified various determinants of successful agri-environmental measures. However, the explanatory value of these studies is limited as the causal processes through which context and scheme design affect implementation success remain grey -boxed. This article uses a mechanism-based approach to uncover the causal processes that underlie actions and interactions within agri-environmental governance arrangements and provides insights into the role the interplay between context and scheme design plays in the successful implementation of agri-environmental measures. The empirical focus is the governance of a successful collective agri-environmental scheme in the Netherlands. In opening the grey box of the causal mechanisms that link contextual and scheme design with their results, the paper applies theory building process tracing methods. Results show that implementation success in the case is explained by the interplay between social learning and trust-building mechanisms. We argue that EU and domestic decision-makers aiming to improve the contribution of agri-environmental measures to climate change adaptation and mitigation must consider the contextual conditions that facilitate increased cooperation between stakeholders and, ultimately, successful implementation of measures. • A mechanism-based approach uncovers the causal processes within agri-environmental governance arrangements. • The the interplay between contexts and scheme design enables implementation success of agri-environmental measures. • Implementation success in the case is explained by an interplay of social learning and trust-building mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wetlands provide numerous ecosystem services essential for biodiversity conservation, climate change mitigation, and human well-being. Nevertheless, there are still no complete and uniform wetland maps providing information on the location, distribution, size, and changing status of wetlands in Africa. In this study, we used 130,000 Landsat satellite images and 270,000 sampling points evenly distributed across Africa to classify wetlands with a random forest classifier based on the Google Earth Engine (GEE) cloud platform. This resulted in the first systematic and comprehensive map of existing wetlands in Africa that quantified the area and distribution of these wetlands at a spatial resolution of 30 m, with an overall wetland producer accuracy of 90.22 % and user accuracy of 95.74 %. To address the seasonal variation in African wetlands, we used a dynamic threshold segmentation method based on the Otsu method, which can extract the extent of wetlands under different periods more accurately based on Landsat time series and African phenology data. Our results show that the total African existing wetlands extent from 2019 to 2021 (here in 2020), was approximately 1,341,500 km2, excluding shallow marine waters, comprises 3.98 % of Africa's total land area. Of these wetlands, inland wetlands account for 81 %, and coastal wetlands account for 19 %. The wetlands in Africa were symmetrically distributed around the equator and decreased with increasing latitude, accounting for 97 % of the total wetland area being within the 20°N and 20°S latitudes. African marshes were highly dynamic, expanding by 92.22 % from the dry to wet season. Our study demonstrates the substantial potential of large data samples, multiple wetland classification features (spectral-temporal, topographic, and hydrological features), and random forest classification in GEE for large-scale wetland mapping. The resulting wetland maps provide new baseline data for large-scale monitoring of seasonal dynamics and long-term trends in African wetlands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Integrated multi-objective optimization with wood price uncertainty. • Identified trade-offs and synergies, considering wood price uncertainty. • Optimal management allocations shift with spatial and harvest size constraints. • Spatial restrictions and wood price uncertainty impact NPV and carbon sequestration. • Results inform strategic decisions in forest management. Forest ecosystems deliver multiple services crucial for human wellbeing and welfare, with complex relationships among forest ecosystem services (FESs). Implementing sustainable forest management (SFM) policy requires insights into trade-offs, conflicts and synergies among key FESs, necessitating decision-support tools for multiple objectives. However, uncertainty in key parameters adds complexity. We formulated a tri-objective optimization problem concentrating on three vital ecosystem services in Nordic boreal forests: timber supply, climate change mitigation, and biodiversity conservation. Furthermore, future timber price uncertainty was integrated into the optimization model. Utilizing the TreeSim individual-tree growth and yield simulator, we simulated forest growth and yields, carbon stocks, and biodiversity values. Pareto-optimal solutions were found for four distinct management strategies using the epsilon-constrain method to solve the optimization problem. These management strategies differed in spatial restrictions on harvest location and timing, including considerations like harvest adjacency, green-up and maximum harvest opening area (MOA). The analysis revealed trade-offs among all three objectives, with variations influenced by management intensity. Furthermore, within the Pareto solutions for each strategy, a compromise solution was identified based on the knee-point method. The study demonstrated nuanced impacts of green-up constraints related to harvest practices, showing minor effects on harvesting, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity conservation when MOA was restricted to 35 hectares or less. However, more substantial impacts were observed with a MOA limited to 60 hectares or in a strategy without spatial restrictions. Our results underscore the importance of considering multiple objectives in forest management and policy under uncertain wood prices, preventing undesired effects from a singular or deterministic approach. This work provides insights into trade-offs and synergies, contributing to strategic planning and policy design. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A widely used hydrological model is applied at the national scale to Spain. • Hydrological ecosystem services are evaluated under a business-as-usual land abandonment scenario. • Land abandonment increases water levels in wetter regions and decreases them in drier areas. • The tool can be easily applied to other countries or basins. This research demonstrates the opportunities and challenges for decision-makers in the use of satellite data driven hydrological model such as WaterWorld to assess current hydrological ecosystem services at the national scale and evaluate the impact of land use scenarios for the future. Spain has been selected as a case study in view of the negative consequences for hydrological ecosystem services caused by land abandonment over the last few decades, which, if action is not taken soon, will make Spain the European Union country most affected by this problem in the coming years. The results show that continued land abandonment will exacerbate the already geographically polarised situation of land abandonment of agricultural areas in the north of the country due to their low economic viability, in contrast to intensification of irrigated area in the most arid regions of Spain, leading to an increase in water balances in the already wet areas and a decrease in the arid areas. However, there is much to be gained from restoration of nature in Spain. Beyond the obvious benefits for biodiversity, climate change mitigation and recreation, abandonment of current agricultural land and its return to natural cover will lead to improvements in water quality ecosystem services. This model used, which is easily replicable to other countries given the availability of a user-friendly interface and embedded global data, can help analyse hydrological ecosystem services in any other country in the world. Like all models and measurements, WaterWorld has limitations so results should be viewed critically, but can still contribute to discussions on land management for sustainability, alongside other source of information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the context of limiting global warming, the seagrass Posidonia oceanica (L.) gained the centrality of several international climate change mitigation projects being the most effective carbon storage sink among Mediterranean seagrasses. To assess and monitor the change of environmental conditions and economic values of natural resources, the present study moves from the insights of the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting – Ecosystem Accounting to assess the economic value of the carbon sequestration and storage capacity of the Mediterranean-endemic seagrass P. oceanica at the Tremiti Islands Marine Protected Area. The economic value is compared across: i. the reference study by Pergent-Martini et al.; ii. the ecological condition-based approach; and iii. the unit value transfer. Based on the obtained outcomes, an ecosystem-based approach would prevent biases in the accounting of the ecosystem-service provision capacity of P. oceanica and help the policy maker to implement adequate public investment policies to mitigate its overall degradation. • Carbon storage capacity is investigated as pilot by ecosystem condition-based approach for accounting purposes. • An ecological approach offers a value added to the assessment of ecosystem services. • An evaluation in biophysical and economic terms of the carbon storage of the P. oceanica is considered. • An ecological approach reduces biases to assess the economic value of the ecosystem services. • The approach helps the policy maker with efficient strategies for public spending. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The nexus between forest-based climate mitigation and health is poorly researched. • This scoping review identified exposure pathways and health co-benefits from forests. • There is potential for synergies between forest management and health benefits. • Interdisciplinary efforts are required for advancement of research and understanding. Climate change is a pressing global challenge with profound implications for human health. Forest-based climate change mitigation strategies, such as afforestation, reforestation, and sustainable forest management, offer promising solutions to mitigate climate change and simultaneously yield substantial co-benefits for human health. The objective of this scoping review was to examine research trends related to the interdisciplinary nexus between forests as carbon sinks and human health co-benefits. We developed a conceptual framework model, supporting the inclusion of exposure pathways, such as recreational opportunities or aesthetic experiences, in the co-benefit context. We used a scoping review methodology to identify the proportion of European research on forest-based mitigation strategies that acknowledge the interconnection between mitigation strategies and human impacts. We also aimed to assess whether synergies and trade-offs between forest-based carbon sink capacity and human co-benefits has been analysed and quantified. From the initial 4,062 records retrieved, 349 reports analysed European forest management principles and factors related to climate change mitigation capacity. Of those, 97 studies acknowledged human co-benefits and 13 studies quantified the impacts on exposure pathways or health co-benefits and were included for full review. Our analysis demonstrates that there is potential for synergies related to optimising carbon sink capacity together with human co-benefits, but there is currently a lack of holistic research approaches assessing these interrelationships. We suggest enhanced interdisciplinary efforts, using for example multideterminant modelling approaches, to advance evidence and understanding of the forest and health nexus in the context of climate change mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fire and overgrazing reduce aboveground biomass, leading to land degradation and potential impacts on soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN) dynamics. However, empirical data are lacking on how prescribed burning and livestock exclusion impact SOC in the long-term. Here we analyse the effects of 19 years of prescribed annual burning and livestock exclusion on tree density, SOC and TN concentrations in the Sudanian savanna ecoregion at two sites (Tiogo and Laba) in Burkina Faso. Results revealed that neither livestock exclusion nor prescribed burning had significant impact on SOC and TN concentrations. The results at both sites indicate that 19 years of livestock and fire exclusion did not result in a significant increase in tree density compared to grazing and annual prescribed burning. The overall mean (± SEM) of SOC stocks in the 0–50 cm depth increment in the unburnt (53.5 ± 4.7 Mg C ha−1) and annually burnt (56.4 ± 4.3 Mg C ha−1) plots at Tiogo were not statistically different. Similarly, at Laba there was no significant difference between the corresponding figures in the unburnt (37.9 ± 2.6 Mg ha−1) and in the annually burnt plots (38.6 ± 1.9 Mg ha−1). Increases in belowground inputs from root turnover may have countered changes in aboveground biomass, resulting in no net change in SOC and TN. We conclude that, contrary to our expectation and current policy recommendations, restricting burning or grazing did not result in increase in SOC stocks in this dry savanna ecosystem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Most of the NbS of Tropical drylands of India are not follow the IUCN standard criteria. • The Identified NbS are baised towards environmental services than addressing social needs of the people. • Improved NbS interventions requires intensive enagement of stakeholders for addressing social causes. Nature-based Solutions (NbS) is a flexible, adaptable, and multi-functional strategies employed to address climate change. However, all the claimed NbS are actually do not adhere the criteria of being NbS. Therefore, present study analysed 87 articles to appraise adherence of potential NbS as per the IUCN Global Standard, along with evaluation of flow of associated ecosystem services (ES). The review identified 39 interventions, out of which only twelve interventions adhered the criteria of NbS. Among the classified NbS, two interventions, namely, sustainable forest management (SFM) (80.83%) and haveli rejuvenation (75.61%) strongly adhered to the IUCN Standard. Lack of adherence in the non-classified NbS interventions was mainly attributed to absence of information on inclusive governance, monitoring and associated trade-offs. The identified 39 interventions were also observed to be enhancing a total of 37 ES, evaluated through 37 distinct indicators i.e. different and enhanced flow of ES were observed by the different NbS. However, the majority of classified NbS were biased towards flow of environmental services than social services. Present study results that all claimed NbS cannot fulfilled the intended objectives of NbS and thus cannot be classified under the NbS as per global standard. Moreover, assessing the flow of associated ES may be an additional support to broaden the scope of NbS implementation. Therefore, present study also highlights to integrate the flow of ES along with the adherence criteria of NbS. Moreover, the review also facilitate to understand constraints associated with the implementation of potential NbS interventions and thus, suggests considering wider aspects in the future researches for assessing the implementation of NbS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conservation of ecosystems is an important tool for climate change mitigation. Seagrasses, mangroves, saltmarshes and other marine ecosystems have particularly high capacities to sequester and store organic carbon (blue carbon), and are being impacted by human activities. Calls have been made to mainstream blue carbon into policies, including carbon markets. Building on the scientific literature and the French voluntary carbon standard, the ' Label Bas-Carbone ', we develop the first method for the conservation of Posidonia oceanica seagrasses using carbon finance. This methodology assesses the emission reduction potential of projects that reduce physical impacts from boating and anchoring. We show how this methodology was institutionalized thanks to a tiered approach on key parameters including carbon stocks, degradation rates, and decomposition rates. We discuss future needs regarding (i) how to strengthen the robustness of the method, and (ii) the expansion of the method to restoration of seagrasses and to other blue carbon ecosystems. [Display omitted] • Blue carbon methodologies are interesting tools to finance conservation • The first institutional blue carbon methodology in Europe is described • France has high potential to develop blue carbon projects • Expansion of methodologies should rest on precautionary principles [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Blue carbon ecosystems (BCEs) have reached international prominence for their role in global climate change mitigation while delivering other essential ecosystem services. Among these, cultural ecosystem services (CES) of BCEs, which are the non-material benefits that contribute to human well-being, are often under represented and unexplored due to challenges in identifying and valuing intangible benefits. Reflecting these challenges, a systematic review was conducted to analyze the state of research on CES of BCEs. Specifically, we identified the abundance of CES research, geographic distribution of studies, CES frameworks and methodologies used, and CES categories and their frequency. The results show that CES studies focusing on BCEs vary and are dependent on specific BCEs; for example, CES related to mangroves are more well-represented than in saltmarshes and seagrasses. The global distribution of studies displayed a high occurrence in Asia, with fewer studies in other regions. Furthermore, we observed that values related to physical experiences are more commonly addressed than those related to intrinsic values. Despite the progress in CES typologies and assessments, there are knowledge gaps that potentially reflect the under-investigation and limited understanding of CES in BCEs, which are valued based on people's perceptions and the characteristics of the habitat. Additionally, there is an opportunity for CES to be integrated into restoration and climate mitigation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Future projections indicate an expansion for both food and energy demands, which can increase pressure on land use, while there is an urgent global need for climate change mitigation. Bioenergy is foreseen as key option to meet future energy demands and reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, however its sustainability depends on locations and regional characteristics. Simultaneously, agricultural production models that co-produce food, feed, and energy offer sustainability synergies and co-benefits, but site-specific sustainability assessments of their large-scale implementation are missing. This study presents a bottom-up approach to assess spatially explicit sustainability aspects of bioenergy-livestock integrated systems (BLI) in Brazil and shed light on their contribution to future energy demands, to climate change mitigation targets, and their impacts on selected ecosystem services, including bioenergy production, climate change mitigation, reduction of food competition, biodiversity conservation, and avoided deforestation. The proposed integration considers livestock intensification and use of biofuels by-products as animal feed supplement, taking advantage of synergies between these two value chains. The expansion of the BLI system in the Center-South region of Brazil produce up to 89 billion liters of ethanol, enough to meet future domestic ethanol demands from multiple shared socioeconomic pathways and generating surpluses for export. This production takes place on 16 million hectares of pastureland within the Sugarcane Agroecological Zoning, excluding the Amazon and Pantanal biomes, and biodiversity hotspots. BLI expansion mitigate up to 250 million tonnes of CO 2 eq and generate 15 billion dollars of profits. The best locations to maximize the selected ecosystem services are west of São Paulo, east of Mato Grosso do Sul, and the south-central region of the states of Goiás. This study may encourage the formulation of enhanced public policies for the integration of bioenergy and livestock value chains and guide a sustainable large-scale deployment of BLI systems. • Bioenergy and livestock integration (BLI): co-production of food, feed and energy. • BLI systems: 89 billion liters of ethanol and 250 million tonnes of CO 2 eq mitigated. • Enough ethanol to meet future Brazilian demands and surplus to be exported. • Biomass expansion only on pastureland inside Sugarcane Agroecological Zoning. • Without land displacement and deforestation of native vegetation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A high-resolution integrated assessment framework for estimating future watershed ecosystem services was proposed under the latest SSP-RCP scenarios; • The spatial–temporal dynamics on water-related ESs of the PRB were projected under the SSP-RCP scenarios; • The main driving factors affecting the spatial–temporal heterogeneity of water-related ESs of the PRB were identified under the SSP-RCP scenarios. The projection of future ecosystem service (ES) dynamics under SSP-RCP scenarios would be beneficial for the development of effective climate mitigation strategies for policymakers. However, current projection frameworks generally neglect the downscaling of high-resolution climate and land use data, leading to uncertainties in the simulation of ESs under the SSP-RCP scenarios. To address this issue, this study proposes an integrated analysis framework to downscale climate and land use data. We first identified areas of high risk in terms of inadequate water-related ESs in the Pearl River Basin (PRB) of China. Subsequently, we analyzed key socio-environmental factors driving the dynamics of water-related ESs under future SSP-RCP scenarios. The results indicate that 1) water-related ESs in the PRB are expected to show an overall increasing trend, 2) the sub-watersheds located in the downstream is at a higher risk of experiencing insufficient supply capacity for water-related ESs, and 3) under the coupling effects of climate change, land use change, and socio-economic development, drastic changes in future land use are expected to have a stronger impact on watershed ESs than the climate (i.e., global warming). Our work provides valuable insights for policymakers and managers regarding future water and land resource planning. The proposed framework can be integrated with other hydrological or land surface models to project the spatial–temporal evolution characteristics of future watershed ESs with finer temporal resolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The potential for large-scale afforestation, as a climate change mitigation strategy, has led to national afforestation targets being proposed. These targets raise many questions, including how to optimise carbon storage, whilst enhancing other ecosystem services (ES). Here, we assess how decision-making at different scales might affect the spatial distribution of new tree planting in England and hence ES provision. This was achieved by modelling the impact of afforestation on three example ES (carbon sequestration, recreation, and flood mitigation) to identify the best areas for planting at five scales of decision-making: national, regional, county, district, and parish. The modelling shows that carbon sequestration rates are relatively invariant across England (once unsuitable areas are excluded), whilst recreation and flood mitigation are more spatially variable, so full simultaneous optimisation of the three ES is not possible. Consequently, recreation and flood mitigation are also more impacted by changes in planning-scale than carbon, with the modelling showing over 200% difference between the parish and national-scenarios for flood mitigation benefits. Overall, targeted afforestation at national scale maximises ES benefits, but risks overwhelming some landscapes with trees. Targeting afforestation using smaller planning units generates more evenly distributed planting, but lower ES benefits. Our results show national-scale planning produces over 35% more combined ecosystem value than planning at parish-scale, and over 65% more than randomized planting. This highlights the benefits of targeting at a relevant scale, but also the potential trade-offs between widely-distributed new tree planting (e.g., parish-scenario), versus planting to optimise ES provision (e.g., the national-scenario). These results do not imply a single 'correct' scale for planning, but instead highlight the importance of considering the impact of a specific scale on the different ES, and that even spatial targeting at the smallest scale produces higher ES benefits than random planting. • Spatially targeting afforestation optimises provision of multiple ecosystem services. • Optimisation method demonstrated for national afforestation targets. • Substantial increase in ecosystem services over untargeted afforestation. • Service provision varies widely with governance level used to plan afforestation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Walnut growing on mine spoil banks, alone or associated with a N-fixer, was studied. • Italian alder positively influenced walnut growth, also by improving stem shape. • Black locust enhanced soil quality more than alder, increasing organic matter and porosity. • Due to its invasive nature, black locust eventually depressed walnut, nearly eliminating it. Mining activities have a major impact on the environment, depressing several ecosystem services. Afforestation is an efficient approach to recovering abandoned mining areas. This paper aims to assess the suitability of common walnut (Juglans regia L.) for planting on mine spoil banks for wood production, hydrogeological protection, and climate change mitigation. The paper also examines if associating walnut with a nitrogen-fixing species, such as Italian alder (Alnus cordata (Loisel.) Duby) or black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.), is advantageous compared to monoculture for the mentioned objectives. For this purpose, contiguous stands of pure walnut and walnut intercropped with one of the two nitrogen-fixing species were studied. The stands had been growing for 34 years on the spoil banks of a lignite mine in central Italy that was abandoned in the 1980s. Overall, walnut in monoculture showed good performances on the infertile substrate, in terms of both growth and stored carbon. On average, in fact, walnut showed a mean height of 16.2 m and a woody volume of 70.1 m3/ha, and had stored 16.5 Mg C/ha between above and below ground. However, walnut significantly benefited from the association with Italian alder, which stimulated the early growth of walnut (up to 15 years) and improved the commercial quality of woody assortments. At the current age, walnut showed significant differences in diameter at breast height (DBH, 44.6%) and total height (H, 17.9%) between the stand where it was originally interspersed with 75% Italian alder and the stand where it grew in monoculture. Alder did not improve soil carbon sequestration, while black locust showed a greater soil improving capacity than alder when associated with walnut, both in terms of organic matter enrichment and bulk density decrease. However, black locust impressive growth rate and strength in chasing suckers induced high walnut mortality. Our results demonstrated that Italian alder is to be preferred to black locust as a nitrogen-fixing species to be associated with walnut, at least in the pedoclimatic and environmental conditions we dealt with. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The saltmarsh carbon storage potential is a key topic in blue carbon research and climate policy. Ecosystem service valuations provide valuable information to policymakers for habitat management and climate change mitigation policies. Yet, only few saltmarsh valuation studies have included the carbon storage service in the UK context. This paper investigates how the public values saltmarsh ecosystem services, focussing on the carbon storage service. We used a choice experiment to elicit the willingness to pay (WTP) of a representative sample of the Scottish public to support interventions that would maintain or improve the provision of these services. Furthermore, we tested the effect of information on individuals' preferences and WTP with a split sample approach where one group received a treatment in the form of additional information. We found that (i) all attributes had a significant influence on individuals' choices; (ii) both groups had, on average, a positive marginal WTP for all presented ecosystem services; (iii) the treated sample had, on average, no significantly different marginal WTP for carbon storage than the control group. This paper adds to the limited literature on the saltmarsh carbon storage ecosystem service and demonstrates a developed nation's public's openness to nature-based climate change mitigation solutions. [Display omitted] • The Scottish public on average prefers saltmarsh management over the status quo. • Providing additional information reduced heterogeneity in WTP for carbon storage. • Most respondents preferred an improvement of all saltmarsh ecosystem services. • Therefore management should focus on both climate change mitigation and adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The forestlands of the Pacific Northwest store a significant amount of carbon, provide wildlife habitat, generate revenue for forestland owners, and provide for sustainable generation of forest products. Promoting forest carbon storage is increasingly recognized as a key management objective to mitigate climate change. We developed an agent-based model to examine the effectiveness of current land management practices in sustaining forest carbon storage and revenue flows, and the utility of market-based carbon payments in improving carbon storage while also improving revenue generation in the Pacific Northwest. We find that while market-based incentives can improve both forest carbon storage and revenue, they are limited in their benefit to small forest owners. Our results highlight the crucial need for additional policy interventions to reduce barriers to market access for small private owners and ensure sustainable forest management in this region. We further show that a forest owners' cooperative, which aggregates small owners to reduce the costs of participating in a carbon market, can help overcome these barriers and result in both greater carbon storage and a more equitable benefit from carbon payments. • Forest carbon management is crucial for climate mitigation; forest owners' management practices play a vital role. • We developed an agent-based model of forest owners' management and their adaptations to carbon-focused policies. • We analyze policy effectiveness for landscape-level and forest owner-level carbon sequestration and revenue generation. • We show policy efficacy for carbon storage and revenue generation, and inequitable economic outcomes across owner groups. • We highlight the need and effectiveness of additional institutional intervention to ensure equitable outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• There is a clear trade-off between the provisioning and other ecosystem services. • Shorter rotations provide better opportunities for timber, C and water production. • Longer rotations create better condition for cultural values, biodiversity and soil protection. • Short rotations lead to higher harvest rate and a more regulated forest structure. • Better combination of management interventions with a better suited tool is needed for an optimal rotation. Addressing the spatio-temporal dynamics of forest development under different management scenarios with varying rotation lengths is a challenge in forest management planning. This research aims to forecast forest development and assess the relative consequences of varying rotation lengths on several ecosystem services such as wood production, habitat for biodiversity, carbon sequestration, water provision, soil protection and cultural values. Forest development is simulated with the ETCAP model to examine the long-term effects of various rotation lengths with silvicultural prescriptions on the ecosystem services. Bürücek forest planning unit is used as a case study area with 10,711 ha forests in upper Mediterranean region of Turkey. Shorter rotation lengths are considered one of the main mitigation measures to climate changes in forestry; however, lead to the increased harvest level, net present value, ground water and soil loss, and reductions in the largest stand volume, understory, basal area, carbon storage and the cultural values with less regulated forest structure. The management scenarios with longer rotation lengths, however, have highlighted improvements in the carbon storage, larger standing volume, mean stand age, basal area and cultural values, and reductions in the mean harvest volume, net present value, ground water and soil loss due to larger-even distribution of tree sizes and stand development stages. An aspiration for a higher level of provisioning services for economic motivations may need to be discarded for the sake of enhancing the capacity of forest ecosystems to sequester more carbon and provide better habitat condition for biodiversity conservation with a careful design and selection of rotation lengths. Overall, the choice of optimal rotation length is highly dependent on a desired set of management objectives and target forest structure driven mostly by management interventions with the appropriate type and level of ecosystem services, provided that a thorough understanding of forest dynamics is achieved by considering both risks and uncertainties associated with natural disturbances and socio-economic conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Societal awareness of the value of coastal ecosystems and the services they provide is necessary for public support of conservation and management decisions, yet public perception is seldom explored. We present findings from an online survey on coastal community perceptions of eelgrass (Zostera marina) and its management in Atlantic Canada and compare these findings with related scientific literature. Responses from 114 participants in an anonymous online survey indicate that people residing in coastal communities in Atlantic Canada are aware of the status of eelgrass meadows in their region, the services they provide, and threats to eelgrass meadows. Consistent with scientific literature, participants identified fish habitat (97%), coastal protection (93%), and water quality maintenance (89%) as the three most important eelgrass ecosystem services. Only 51% of participants selected climate change mitigation as a valuable eelgrass ecosystem service, consistent with its more recent appearance in scientific publications and the absence of Canadian policies on this service. Coastal development, climate change, and invasive species were identified as the most likely causes of change in eelgrass. More than 80% of participants indicated a need for increased restoration and protection, and 76% agreed that the public should be more involved in all aspects of eelgrass management. Although based on a non-random sample of the population, this study illustrates a relationship between scientific knowledge, public awareness, and existing Canadian policies. Participants' knowledge of the societal benefits of eelgrass meadows and support for and interest in participating in the management process signals an opportunity to expand public engagement with eelgrass conservation efforts. This could begin by refining and introducing policies that protect the numerous ecosystem services eelgrass meadows provide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Even though oil, gas, and coal resources might be unavailable after 2040, 2042, and 2112, respectively; 81.7% of the energy is produced from fossil fuels. Experts have established that this level of non-renewable resource use is unsustainable, ecologically unsafe, and critically changing climate patterns. Whereas climate change and biodiversity loss have subjected mankind to significant systemic risks, policymakers have recommended a switch from fossil fuel-based to a biobased economy and reconnecting humans with the biosphere as a way to mitigate these risks. A circular bioeconomy has been suggested as an efficient approach to utilize environmentally safe ecosystem services for socio-ecological development and transformation towards sustainability. The circular bioeconomy provides significant opportunities to achieve 17 SDGs and 134 targets of the Sustainable Development Agenda 2030, and address numerous national and international challenges caused by climate action. In this review, we have highlighted links between circular bioeconomy and internationally agreed SDG targets [particularly SDG 13 (climate action)]; and assessed ecosystem services in a circular biobased economy. A critical synthesis vis-à-vis climate action through circular bioeconomy to assure the sustainability of bioeconomy programmes is herein presented. [Display omitted] • Switching to a biobased circular economy is a perfect strategy for climate action. • Ecosystem services are valuable for the execution of circular bioeconomy policies. • Circular bioeconomy framework involves living feedstock conversion into useful products. • Linking bioeconomy programmes to SDGs assure their sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indonesia has the largest extent of mangroves globally, supporting communities at the local scale while contributing to climate change mitigation at the global scale. Yet, they are highly threatened by multiple anthropogenic and natural stressors. Thus, in this study, we aim to qualitatively assess Indonesia's mangrove ecosystems by conducting a literature review applying the Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework. By using the framework, we identified multiple stressors and existing management efforts in 27 provinces of Indonesia. For instance, we identified aquaculture expansion as the most frequented driver of mangrove loss leading to the conversion of mangroves to shrimp farms in 20 provinces. In terms of responses, mangrove rehabilitation and community-based management have a long history in Indonesia while economic valuation and payment of ecosystem services are yet to be established across the country. The identification of multiple stressors and/or threats is instrumental to addressing the causes of degradation of globally-important mangroves in Indonesia if effectively translated into policies, which remains a future challenge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To limit global warming to 1.5 °C, vast amounts of CO 2 will have to be removed from the atmosphere via Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR). Enhancing the CO 2 sequestration of ecosystems will require not just one approach but a portfolio of CDR options, including so-called nature-based approaches alongside CDR options that are perceived as more technical. Creating a CDR "supply curve" would however imply that all carbon removals are considered to be perfect substitutes. The various co-benefits of nature-based CDR approaches militate against this. We discuss this aspect of nature-based solutions in connection with the enhancement of blue carbon ecosystems (BCE) such as mangrove or seagrass habitats. Enhancing BCEs can indeed contribute to CO 2 sequestration, but the value of their carbon storage is low compared to the overall contribution of their ecosystem services to wealth. Furthermore, their property rights are often unclear, i.e. not comprehensively defined or not enforced. Hence, payment schemes that only compensate BCE carbon sequestration could create tradeoffs at the expense of other important, often local, ecosystem services and might not result in socially optimal outcomes. Accordingly, one chance for preserving and restoring BCEs lies in the consideration of all services in potential compensation schemes for local communities. Also, local contexts, management structures, and benefit-sharing rules are crucial factors to be taken into account when setting up international payment schemes to support the use of BCEs and other nature- or ecosystem-based CDR. However, regarding these options as the only hope of achieving more CDR will very probably not bring about the desired outcome, either for climate mitigation or for ecosystem preservation. Unhalted degradation, in turn, will make matters worse due to the large amounts of stored carbon that would be released. Hence, countries committed to climate mitigation in line with the Paris targets should not hide behind vague pledges to enhance natural sinks for removing atmospheric CO 2 but commit to scaling up engineered CDR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Switchgrass is a promising feedstock for cellulosic biorefineries, due to its ability to maintain comparatively high biomass yields across a wide range of soil and climatic conditions. However, there is an incomplete understanding of the economic and environmental tradeoffs associated with cultivating switchgrass on low-productivity land for conversion to biofuels. This study surveys prior literature and demonstrates a new integrated assessment framework, including agroecosystem, ecosystem services valuation, technoeconomic, and life-cycle assessment models, to quantify and contextualize the economic and environmental impacts of switchgrass cultivation on marginal land with downstream conversion to biofuels. Monetizing and incorporating the value of ecosystem services, such as improved water quality benefits from nitrate and sediment reductions, climate change mitigation benefits from CO 2 emission reduction, and recreational and pollination benefits from increased biodiversity, the modeled multifunctional landscape reduces the ethanol production cost by 33.3–58.9 cents/ l -gasoline-equivalent ($1.3–2.2/gge). Planting switchgrass in low productivity land improves soil health, resulting in the carbon footprint reduction credit of 12.8–20.2 gCO 2e /MJ. For an improved switchgrass-to-ethanol conversion pathway with the maximum benefits from ecosystem services, the minimum ethanol selling price and carbon footprint of ethanol, respectively, could reach to 31 cents/ l -gasoline-equivalent (47% reduction relative to average gasoline price) and 3 gCO 2e /MJ (97% reduction relative to gasoline). This low carbon renewable ethanol leads to substantial State and/or Federal policy incentives (∼$1/ l -gasoline-equivalent) providing a large benefit to biorefinery operators, farmers, and the public as a whole. • Ecosystem services benefits reduced the delivered switchgrass cost by $29–104/bdt. • Switchgrass grown on marginal land increased carbon sequestration by 0.1–0.36 MgC/ha. • Ecosystem services benefits reduced ethanol selling price reduced by 20–55%. • Carbon footprint of ethanol reduced by 44–81% with ecosystem services benefits. • Biorefinery operators could make profit of 28 cents/ l -gasoline-equivalent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Decision-making resource stewardship models rely on statistical relationships between management actions and ecosystem services provisioning. The operationalization of management actions benefits from models capable to isolate synergic statistical relationships from trade-offs. We showcase two existing watershed planning studies requiring spatiotemporal operationalization to better schedule management actions. The study in Hawai'i Island (USA) focused on invasive species while another in Babeldaob Island (Republic of Palau) tackled wildfire management. Both planning exercises relied on Ecosystem Management Decision Support to populate hydrologically defined management units for supporting water resource decision-making. In this viewpoint we identify shortcomings and potential future directions aligned with shaping stewardship responses to the interactive constraints of climate mitigation and management costs within a very needed optimization framework capable to operationally support landscape managers and drive solutions on ES management and valuation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Massive grasslands on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau(QTP) provide vital ecosystems services, which have been decreased by land degradation associated with global change. Effective efforts and actions of restoration and management are required to promote the sustainable development of these grassland ecosystems with global importance. This special issue collected numerous papers to address share the innovative theoretical foundations and practical approaches for restoring and protecting QTP's grassland ecosystems in the era of global change. The findings from the collected papers of this special issue stated that the ecosystems services of the QTP's grasslands are declining due to weakened interfaces among soil, plant and grazing animals in the QTP's grassland ecosystems by climate and land use changes. Applicable actions such as climate change mitigation and adaptation, close-to-nature restoration, rotational grazing regime with moderate grazing intensity should be taken to enhance the ecosystem services through rebuilding rational soil-plant-animal interfaces. • Both climate change and human activities led to grassland degradation. • Grassland degradation have weakened the ecosystem services. • Restoration and rational grazing can enhance sustainability of grasslands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seagrasses provide vital ecosystem services which include the accumulation and storage of carbon and nutrients in sediments and biomass. Despite their importance in climate change mitigation and adaptation, seagrass ecosystems have been poorly studied, particularly in the Pacific. Therefore, the present study assessed variability in sedimentary and vegetative C, N and P storage in three monospecific seagrass meadows (Halophila ovalis , Halodule pinifolia and Halodule uninervis), reporting baseline data for the first time. Sediment C org stocks ranged from 31 to 47 Mg C ha−1 and varied (p < 0.001) between seagrass meadows, unvegetated areas and locations. Comparison of N and P storage between vegetated meadows and unvegetated areas revealed differences (p < 0.05); implying seagrass meadows function as C, N and P sinks. Differences in species composition and environmental conditions, may play a key role in estimating C, N and P stocks, which are valuable data for conservation and monitoring of seagrass ecosystems. • C, N and P content was high for sediments and seagrass tissues. • C stocks were up to 2.5 times more in vegetated sediments. • C, N and P accumulation are dependent on seagrass species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The ecosystem service of microclimate regulation of green areas in 601 european cities has been assessed. • The model simulates the temperature difference between a baseline and a no-vegetation scenario. • The indicator estimates the amount of vegetation needed to cool urban temperature by a certain degree. • Green areas cool european cities by 1.07 °C on average, and up to 2.9 °C. • In order to achieve a 1 °C drop in urban temperatures, a tree cover of at least 16% is required. The Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect is one of the most harmful environmental hazards for urban dwellers. Climate change is expected to increase the intensity of the UHI effect. In this context, the implementation of Urban Green Infrastructure (UGI) can partially reduce UHI intensity, promoting a resilient urban environment and contributing to climate change adaptation and mitigation. In order to achieve this result, there is a need to systematically integrate UGI into urban planning and legislation, but this process is subject to the availability of widely applicable, easily accessible and quantitative evidence. To offer a big picture of urban heat intensity and opportunities to mitigate high temperatures, we developed a model that reports the Ecosystem Service (ES) of microclimate regulation of UGI in 601 European cities. The model simulates the temperature difference between a baseline and a no-vegetation scenario, extrapolating the role of UGI in mitigating UHI in different urban contexts. Finally, a practical, quantitative indicator that can be applied by policymakers and city administrations has been elaborated, allowing to estimate the amount of urban vegetation that is needed to cool summer temperatures by a certain degree. UGI is found to cool European cities by 1.07 °C on average, and up to 2.9 °C, but in order to achieve a 1 °C drop in urban temperatures, a tree cover of at least 16% is required. The microclimate regulation ES is mostly dependent on the amount of vegetation inside a city and by transpiration and canopy evaporation. Furthermore, in almost 40% of the countries, more than half of the residing population does not benefit from the microclimate regulation service provided by urban vegetation. Widespread implementation of UGI, in particular in arid regions and cities with insufficient tree cover, is key to ensure healthy urban living conditions for citizens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Climate smart forestry (CSF) indicators based on forest inventory are presented. • Indicators were projected under management scenarios with a simulation model. • National carbon stock increases with current management, but regions differ. • Trade-offs occur between mitigation, adaptation and ecosystem services (ES). • The presented framework can support policy in balancing ES in the context of CSF. Climate-smart forestry (CSF) has gained increasing attention in recent years. Yet, a framework to assess the three pillars of CSF, in terms of mitigation and adaptation to climate change and ecosystem service (ES) provision based on national forest inventory (NFI) data is currently lacking. In this study, we present an assessment framework of CSF based on forest indicators derived from NFI. To quantify the three pillars of CSF we defined 1) mitigation based on the forest carbon stock, 2) adaptation using biodiversity and susceptibility to disturbances caused by storm and bark beetles and 3) ES provision with timber production and protection against avalanches and rockfall. We demonstrate the application of this framework using Swiss NFI data and projections of future forest development under four different management scenarios. Our results show that, in general, the carbon stock is increasing at the national scale when current management practices are maintained. Increases are especially pronounced in the Jura and Southern Alps regions. Trade-offs occur between enhancing mitigation and adaption, and the sustainable provision of ES such as timber production. Scenarios with increased harvesting intensities lead to a higher timber supply in the short-term, while decreasing the carbon stock, biodiversity-related old-growth indicators and the protective function of forests. The indicator framework presented in this study provides a first methodological approach that can support policy making to balance the different forest services in the context of CSF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Ecosystem services have synergies and trade-offs between sustainability dimensions. • The complex nature of ecosystem model output make communicating findings difficult. • We developed modeled based CIs to evaluate forest management strategies. • Composites were systematically evaluated across three regions and climate periods. Forests provide a wide range of ecosystem services, and ecosystem models can be applied to assess the contribution of different forest management strategies to climate mitigation and adaptation. Complex model output and trade-offs between environmental, economic, and social sustainability dimensions are difficult to convey. To facilitate stakeholder communication, we developed composite indicators based on ten ecosystem service indicators obtained from ecosystem model simulations representing 19 forestry management strategies across three ecoregions and climate scenario projections in Sweden. Eight alternative composites were generated around a central framework addressing sustainability aspects in terms of wood production, preservation of biodiversity, climate change mitigation and adaptation (risk management). A combination of principal component analysis, exploratory factor analysis, Cronbach's coefficient alpha, and hierarchical cluster analysis was applied to account for the statistical relationships between indicators. Z-score normalization was superior to min-max normalization in capturing differences among management strategies. Two weighting schemes were applied, based on policy prioritizations between sub-components that reflected 1) current policy with an equal emphasis on production and biodiversity, and 2) a stronger focus on nature protection. Equal emphasis generated a larger range of scores (76.0 ± 21.2) than the focus on nature protection (32.0 ± 5.8), as the latter would provide less production benefits and thereby fewer trade-offs between production and other aspects. The final scores of the 19 management strategies fell within a variance boundary of each other, showing their contribution to different policy targets and the usefulness of combining strategies at the landscape level. The composites displayed agreement across regions and scenarios. They indicated that a shift from even-aged conifer monocultures towards a combination of continuous cover, broadleaf-mixture, and unmanaged would work well for balancing goals under changing climate conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • We propose a novel framework for urban drainage adaptation to climate change. • We assess climate change impacts on rainfall extremes, IDF curves, drainage systems. • We introduce an index for assessing overall reliability of urban drainage networks. • We introduce an index for assessing adaptive capacity of urban drainage networks. • We incorporate benefits offered by ecosystem services in economic terms. A novel methodological framework for urban drainage adaptation to climate change is introduced and tested in a small urban basin. The impact of climate change on Intensity-Duration-Frequency curves and on urban drainage is reported. The flood mitigation measures comprised both green and grey alternatives, i.e., permeable surfaces and sewer enlargement. The Storm Water Management Model (SWMM5) was calibrated and employed. Prior to calibration, sensitivity analysis of SWMM hydrologic-hydraulic and permeable surfaces input parameters was conducted using a global sensitivity analysis method. Two novel indices, the Index for Reliability of Urban Drainage Adaptation (IRUDA) and the Climate Variability Adaptation Index (CVAI), were also introduced. IRUDA assesses the total reliability of an urban drainage network in hydraulic, temporal and volumetric terms. Sizing of flood mitigation measures was undertaken employing construction cost along with IRUDA. CVAI was used for alternative selection among different flood mitigation scenarios. CVAI assesses the total adaptive capacity of the drainage network based on hydrological, hydraulic and economic aspects of the proposed adaptation plan. A forward uncertainty propagation scheme was employed on the selected alternative in order to examine input data and parametric uncertainty with respect to the peak discharge at the outlet of the basin. Finally, monetization of ecosystem services offered by green measures is presented. The simulation results for the study area illustrated that under the non-stationarity assumption future rainfall intensities and urban flooding risk will increase, and therefore, further flood mitigation measures will be required. Furthermore, the majority of the adaptation strategies examined were found to improve the capacity and reliability of the drainage network. Moreover, the results revealed that permeable pavements perform better for storm events with return period of up to five years. Overall, it can be concluded that design criteria need to be reviewed and also green measures, such as permeable surfaces, can be introduced in the design procedure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a result of ongoing climate change and more frequent heat events, the regulating services of land cover in terms of moderating and mitigating local temperatures are increasingly important. While the reduced temperatures found in forests and wetlands are recognized, their wider contribution to regional landscape cooling remains largely uncharacterized and unquantified. Herein, we propose and test a new method that estimates the temperature response and inertia of landscapes in high temperatures, based on land cover share. In order to achieve this goal, we combined the MODIS daytime land surface temperature (henceforth LST) time series and CORINE land cover data. We classified the time series in two ways, i.e. by stepwise temperature range (−10/−5 °C to +35/+40 °C) and by the occurrence of hot days (days with a mean LST ≥ 30 °C). As an explanatory variable, we developed and used a greenest pixel composite of the MODIS normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) time series. In our study area, covering parts of northeastern Germany and western Poland, the fragmented landscape has heterogeneous temperature patterns, including urban heat islands, warm agricultural areas, cool forests and cold wetlands. We found that at high temperature ranges only forests and wetlands remained comparably cool, with LSTs up to 20.8 °C lower than the maximum LST in the study area. The analysis of land cover shares and LSTs revealed the substantial cooling effect of forests and wetlands in line with increasing land cover share in higher temperature ranges, as well as on hot days. The relation between LST and the NDVI indicated vegetation cover as the cause. We propose the corresponding metrics to quantify landscape-level temperature regulation. Equally, we advocate for management to identify these ecosystem services and their current and potential contributions, along with implications for sustaining and increasing, both tree cover and wetlands and thereby adapting landscapes to climate change. [Display omitted] • Land cover share by forests and wetlands predicts mitigation of temperature extremes. • Regulating service: forests and wetlands cool the landscape particularly on hot days. • NDVI measurements indicate that temperature relates to vegetation cover. • Landscape planning and management must incorporate need for temperature management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The carbon stock in mature Eucalyptus areas is almost twice the forest savanna. • The effect of the harvest is reduced with >60% natural forest in the watershed. • Forest structure attributes on AGC stock were better than those of composition. • The tradeoff between native and commercial forests occurred with 55% native forest. The history of deforestation within the Brazilian savanna shaped landscapes with anthropic matrices, and silviculture is one of them. Commercial forest management strongly acts on this biome, affecting natural areas of "cerradão", a forest physiognomy. The loss of this ecosystem decreases the regional potential of carbon capturing and stocking by native plants, an ecological function that contributes to climate change mitigation, recognized as a regulating ecosystem service. On the other hand, human activities which guarantee the supply of provisioning services, such as commercial forests, are important for regional socioeconomic sustainability. Thus, keeping a balanced supply of both services without exceeding their thresholds brings benefits, avoiding irreversible losses for the human society. With this in mind, we aimed to evaluate the capacity of savanna landscapes in contributing to climate regulation by carbon sequestration from natural forests and generating financial incomes from silvicultural activity, in territories with different proportions of natural and commercial forest cover. We define thresholds and tradeoffs between the supply of ecosystem services and cellulose markets. Also, we assessed the role of compositional and structural attributes of the native forests on carbon stock results. The cerradão presents an average aboveground carbon (AGC) stock of 40 MgC.ha−1, while the carbon stock in Eucalyptus plantings with 6–8 years is almost twice this value, despite this contribution be temporary in the landscape. The benefits from native and commercial forests are equivalent in watersheds presenting at least 55% of their territories covered by native forests. The condition for sustaining carbon ecosystem services and still generating financial gains with the same relative value corresponds to CO 2 sequestration equal to 90.6 Mg.ha−1 and a gross income of 20.8 × 103 US$ per hectare of Eucalyptus planted for cellulose pulp. The structural features of the native forest remnants on the AGC stock were more effective than compositional attributes, being strongly correlated with the dominance of certain species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agroforestry landscapes provide multiple benefits, including the capacity for storing carbon, thus contributing to climate change mitigation. In Portugal, the agroforestry system known as Montado (Dehesa in Spain) is heavily dependent on national and European financial incentives. Lack thereof, or insufficient level, often results in abandonment or intensification (increasing grazing pressure) of management practices. Carbon storage is a stock externality of agroforestry systems currently not targeted by CAP agri-environmental mechanisms. Hence, our work is aimed at assessing and valuing net carbon flow in agroforestry systems to guide a Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) scheme targeting Montado landscapes in Portugal. We have assessed and valued net carbon flow for different land-use change scenarios (abandonment, maintenance, or grazing intensification), focusing on cork and holm oak-dominated Montado and using biomass equations. We applied different explicit carbon pricing mechanisms (market value, social cost, and shadow price) to determine a range of values suitable as financial rewards in the proposed PES scheme. For cork-oak Montado , our results suggest both abandonment and grazing intensification are linked to carbon emissions (−1.5 and −1.6tCO 2 eq.ha-1.year-1, respectively), whereas maintaining Montado results in carbon sequestration (+0.9tCO 2 eq.ha-1.year-1). Similar results were found for holm oak. Based on this biophysical assessment, we estimate that farmers willing to maintain Montado systems are eligible to be rewarded between 106 and 149€.ha-1.year-1 through a PES scheme for the increase in carbon storage they are providing. Incorporating the value of ecosystem services into direct financial rewards could ensure agroforestry systems are kept under sustainable management and continue to supply multiple benefits to society. • Carbon storage is an unrewarded stock externality of Portuguese Montado systems. • CAP mechanisms are needed to halt abandonment or grazing intensification in Montado. • Grazing intensification leads to carbon emissions of up to 1.6tCO 2 eq.ha-1.year-1. • Montado conservation increases carbon storage by 0.9 tCO 2 eq.ha-1.year-1. • The case for Eco-Schemes is built based on the carbon storage potential of Montado. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Understanding the dynamics of urban forests as carbon pools is crucial. • Tree height is relevant because it is used to predicting biomass and carbon storage. • It is relevant check the point density influence on deriving the tree height. • The UAV-Lidar provides a high density of returns, thus more tree's details. • The UAV-Lidar's high densities have derived heights similar to moderate densities. Urban forest remnants contribute to climate change mitigation by reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in urban areas. Hence, understanding the dynamics and the potential of urban forests as carbon pools is crucial to propose effective policies addressing the ecosystem services' maintenance. Remote sensing technologies such as Light detection and ranging (Lidar) are alternatives to acquire information on urban forests accurately. In this paper, we evaluate a UAV-Lidar system's potential to derive individual tree heights of Araucaria angustifolia trees in an Urban Atlantic Forest. Additionally, the influence of point density when deriving tree heights was assessed (2500, 1000, 500, 250, 100, 50, 25, 10 and 5 returns.m−2). The UAV-Lidar data was collected with the GatorEye Unmanned Flying Laboratory 'Generation 2'. The UAV-Lidar-derived and field-based tree heights were compared by statistical analysis. Higher densities of points allowed a better description of tree profiles. Lower densities presented gaps in the Crown Height Model (CHM). The highest agreement between UAV-Lidar-derived and field-based tree heights (r = 0.73) was noticed when using 100 returns.m−2. The lowest rRMSE was observed for 50 returns.m−2 (8.35 %). There are no explicit differences in derived tree heights using 25 to 2500 returns.m−2. UAV-Lidar data presented satisfactory performance when deriving individual tree heights of Araucaria angustifolia trees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]