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Environment, Archaeology and Landscape is a collection of papers dedicated to Martin Bell on his retirement as Professor of Archaeological Science at the University of Reading. Three themes outline how wetland and inland environments can be related and investigated using multi-method approaches. ‘People and the Sea: Coastal and Intertidal Archaeology'explores the challenges faced by humans in these zones – particularly relevant to the current global sea level rise. ‘Patterns in the Landscape: Mobility and Human-environment Relationships'includes some more inland examples and examines how past environments, both in Britain and Europe, can be investigated and brought to public attention. The papers in ‘Archaeology in our Changing World: Heritage Resource Management, Nature Conservation and Rewilding'look at current challenges and debates in landscape management, experimental and community archaeology. A key theme is how archaeology can contribute time depth to an understanding of biodiversity and environmental sustainability. This volume will be of value to all those interested in environmental archaeology and its relevance to the modern world.

Bridging Times and Spaces is composed of papers written by colleagues of Professor Gregory E. Areshian on the occasion his 65th birthday reflecting the breadth and diversity of his scholarly contributions. The range of presented papers covers topics in Near Eastern, Mediterranean and Armenian archaeology, theory of interpretation in archaeology and art history, interdisciplinary history, historical linguistics, art history, and comparative mythology. The volume opens with an extensive interview given by Gregory Areshian, in which Gregory outlines the pathways of his academic career, archaeological discoveries, different intellectual quests, and the organic connections between research questions that he explored across different social sciences and the humanities, stressing the importance of periodizations in interdisciplinary history as well as his views on holism and interdisciplinary studies.

The Adventure of the Illustrious Scholar: Papers Presented to Oscar White Muscarella, edited by Elizabeth Simpson, is a Festschrift celebrating the career of one of the foremost archaeologists of the ancient Near East. Oscar Muscarella is a former curator at the Metropolitan Museum of Art and a formidable scholar who has excavated at sites in Turkey, Iran, and the United States. He has published eight books and nearly 200 articles, excavation reports, and reviews on topics ranging from the arts of antiquity and the importance of connoisseurship, to the difficulties of dating and the problems of forgeries, the looting of ancient sites, and the antiquities trade. The forty-seven contributors are experts in the areas of Muscarella's interests and are major scholars in their fields. This volume constitutes an unusual, important, and timely addition to the archaeological and art historical literature.

This book is based on the papers accepted for presentation during the 3rd Springer Conference of the Arabian Journal of Geosciences (CAJG-3). The book is of interest to all researchers in the fields of geomorphology, sedimentology, and geochemistry. Papers in the field of geomorphology deal with topics related to fault slip and incision rates, soil science, landslides and debris flows, coastal processes, and geoarcheology and geoheritage. Papers in the field of sedimentology cover research studies in stratigraphy and environmental, tectonic, and diagenetic processes, together with studies focusing on the evolutionary, biostratigraphic, and paleo-environmental significance of paleontology. This section also contains papers on marine geosciences, from molecular proxies related to climate to geophysical surveys. The third set of papers focuses on studies related to geochemistry that are focused on sedimentary geochemistry and mineralogical characterization, magmatic and metamorphic processes and products, and the origin and exploration of mineral deposits. This book resumes the current situation related to the abovementioned topics mainly in the Mediterranean realm and its surroundings. The book is of interest to all researchers, practitioners, and students in the fields of geomorphology, sedimentology, and geochemistry.

This volume includes a selection of papers derived from the IX Conference of the Pampas region of Argentina, held virtually in 2021 in Mar del Plata (Buenos Aires, Argentina) and organized by the National University of Mar del Plata. Located in the southern cone of South America, the Pampas are vast plain grasslands that range across central Argentina and are one of the largest prairies of the world. The early traces of humans date back to ca. 12,200 14C years BP. From the Late Pleistocene up to the Spanish Conquest in the sixteenth century, hunter-gatherer groups occupied the Pampas. Archaeological research in the region has been focused on fascinating topics such as the early peopling, the mobility circuits in the past, the interaction between indigenous and colonial societies, and the perception of this complex past by the modern Pampean society, mainly integrated by European immigrants and indigenous descendants. This book gathers these themes and includes a selection of a conference of one of the keynote speakers and 18 papers that represent diverse topics on the current Pampean research. The book is structured in two main axes: 1) prehispanic studies using different lines of evidence; 2) historical archaeology and cultural heritage.

The book Relics @ the Lab, an Analytical Approach to the Study of Relics includes a series of studies presented at the first international workshop Relics @ the Lab organized by the Royal Institute of Cultural Heritage (KIK-IRPA) in Brussels, Belgium (27-28 October 2016). The papers cover a large variety of themes as well as analytical methods. Some papers focus on the primary relics while others deal with the nature and origin of secondary as well as tertiary relics. The first group of papers emphases on the archaeological authenticity of the relics, the second group elucidate the use, additions and manipulations of the relics through the ages. The applied analytical techniques are very diverse. Radiocarbon and physical anthropology are the main tools to study the primary relics, while dye analysis, imaging techniques, textile analysis and dendrochronology are used to study the secondary and tertiary relics. Sometimes unexpected techniques, like the analysis of writing ink or the determination of plants and excrements, complete the wide range of analytical methods used to understand the origin, nature and context of the relics. Academics as well as professionals working in archaeology, art history, museum labs and conservation sciences will find this an invaluable reference source.

Buildings in Society: International Studies in the Historic Era presents a series of papers reflecting the latest approaches to the study of buildings from the historic period. This volume does not examine buildings as architecture, but adopts an archaeological perspective to consider them as artefacts, reflecting the needs of those who commissioned them. Studies have often failed to consider the historical contexts in which the buildings were constructed and how they were subsequently used and interpreted. The papers in this volume situate their interpretation in their social context. Buildings can inform us about past cultures as they are responsive and evolve to meet people's needs over time. The buildings examined in this volume range from the twelfth to the twenty-first century and cross continents including case-studies from America, Australia and Europe, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Scandinavia and the Mediterranean. Themes include: Approaches to the study of buildings, Buildings of Power, Buildings in Identity, Domestic Space and Urban and Village Spaces. The essays consider building design, role, and how the buildings were altered as their function changed to coincide with the needs and aspirations of those who owned or used the buildings. This collection of papers emphasizes the need for further international multidisciplinary approaches including archaeology, architectural history and art history in order to understand how ideas, styles, approaches and designs spread over time and space. Together, these papers generate valuable new insights into the study of buildings in the historic period.

Public Archaeology and Climate Change promotes new approaches to studying and managing sites threatened by climate change, specifically actions that engage communities or employ ‘citizen science'initiatives. Researchers and heritage managers around the world are witnessing severe challenges and developing innovative mechanisms for dealing with them. Increasingly archaeologists are embracing practices learned from the natural heritage sector, which has long worked with the public in practical recording projects. By involving the public in projects and making data accessible, archaeologists are engaging society in the debate on threatened heritage and in wider discussions on climate change. Community involvement also underpins wider climate change adaptation strategies, and citizen science projects can help to influence and inform policy makers. Developing threats to heritage are being experienced around the world, and as this collection of papers will show, new partnerships and collaborations are crossing national boundaries. With examples from across the globe, this selection of 18 papers detail the scale of the problem through a variety of case studies. Together they demonstrate how heritage professionals, working in diverse environments and with distinctive archaeology, are engaging with the public to raise awareness of this threatened resource. Contributors examine differing responses and proactive methodologies for the protection, preservation and recording of sites at risk from natural forces and demonstrate how new approaches can better engage people with sites that are under increasing threat of destruction, thus contributing to the resilience of our shared heritage.

In this volume, the founder of processual archaeology, Lewis R. Binford collects and comments on the twenty-eight substantive papers published in the 1980's, the third in his set of collected papers (also Working at Archaeology and An Archaeological Perspective). This ongoing collection of self-edited papers, together with the extensive and very candid interstitial commentaries, provides an invaluable record of the development of'The New Archaeology'and a challenging view into the mind of the man who is certainly the most creative archaeological theorist of our time. A new (2009) foreword allows further reflections on his work.

Stimulated by'Noah's Flood Hypothesis'proposed by W. Ryan and W. Pitman in which a catastrophic inundation of the Pontic basin was linked to the biblical story, leading experts in Black Sea research (including oceanography, marine geology, paleoclimate, paleoenvironment, archaeology, and linguistic spread) provide overviews of their data and interpretations obtained through empirical scientific approaches. Among the contributors are many East European scientists whose work has rarely been published outside of Cyrillic. Each of the 35 papers marshals its own evidence for or against the flood hypothesis. No summary or overall resolution to the flood question is presented, but instead access is provided to a broad range of interdisciplinary information that crosses previously impenetrable language barriers so that new work in the region can proceed with the benefit of a wider frame of reference. The three fundamental scenarios describing the late glacial to Holocene rise in the level of the Black Sea—catastrophic, gradual, and oscillating—are presented in the early pages, with the succeeding papers organized by geographic sector: northern (Ukraine), western (Moldova, Romania, and Bulgaria), southern (Turkey), and eastern (Georgia and Russia), as well as three papers on the Mediterranean. The volume thus brings together eastern and western scholarship to share research findings and perspectives on a controversial subject. In addition, appendices are included containing some 600 radiocarbon dates from the Pontic region obtained by USSR and western laboratories.

This book involves collection of papers primarily focused on the origin and development of Chinese civilization in the concept of archaeological context from the 6000 BCE to 1300 BCE through archaeological cultural perspectives. It systematically illustrates the prehistoric cultural history of China at the period from Neolithic to the early Bronze Age during 20000-1300 BCE, composing not only the proper region around the Central Plain but also the margin areas mainly in the west, and examines the cultural relationship and exchanges nationally and internationally through thousand years of advancing social complexity in geographical and temporal genealogies. It introduces three prehistoric stages for the course of Chinese Civilization Development; the three major Civilization Development Models during the Chalcolithic period; how environmental changes and warfare functioned as the part of mechanism to make civilization evolve; the Bronze Age Revolution from the West; and the critical evaluation of the characteristics belonging to Chinese Civilization and the review of ancient legendary histories and legends through the archaeological perspectives. This book is essential reading for all those wanting more information about the foundations of Chinese history and civilization through archaeological studies.

This book gathers the peer-reviewed papers presented at the 13th International Conference on Structural Analysis of Historical Constructions (SAHC), held in Kyoto, Japan, on September 12-15, 2023. It highlights the latest advances and innovations in the field of conservation and restoration of historical and heritage structures. The conference topics encompass history of construction and building technology, theory and practice of conservation, inspection methods, non-destructive techniques and laboratory testing, numerical modeling and structural analysis, management of heritage structures and conservation strategies, structural health monitoring, repair and strengthening strategies and techniques, vernacular constructions, seismic analysis and retrofit, vulnerability and risk analysis, resilience of historic areas to climate change and hazard events, durability, and sustainability. As such the book represents an invaluable, up-to-the-minute tool, providing an essential overview of conservation of historical constructions, and offers an important platform to engineers, architects, archeologists, and geophysicists.Chapter The Challenges of the Conservation of Earthen Sites in Seismic Areas, Chapter Performance Evaluation of Patch Repairs on Historic Concrete Structures (PEPS): Preliminary Results from Two English Case Studies are available open access under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License via link.springer.com.

This book gathers the peer-reviewed papers presented at the 13th International Conference on Structural Analysis of Historical Constructions (SAHC), held in Kyoto, Japan, on September 12-15, 2023. It highlights the latest advances and innovations in the field of conservation and restoration of historical and heritage structures. The conference topics encompass history of construction and building technology, theory and practice of conservation, inspection methods, non-destructive techniques and laboratory testing, numerical modeling and structural analysis, management of heritage structures and conservation strategies, structural health monitoring, repair and strengthening strategies and techniques, vernacular constructions, seismic analysis and retrofit, vulnerability and risk analysis, resilience of historic areas to climate change and hazard events, durability, and sustainability. As such the book represents an invaluable, up-to-the-minute tool, providing an essential overview of conservation of historical constructions, and offers an important platform to engineers, architects, archeologists, and geophysicists.Chapter Guidelines for Seismic Retrofitting of Earthen Historic Buildings in Peru and Latin America is available open access under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License via link.springer.com.

Eleanor Conlin Casella and James Symonds th The essays in this book are adapted from papers presented at the 24 Annual Conference of the Theoretical Archaeology Group, held at the University of Manchester, in December 2002. The conference session “An Industrial Revolution? Future Directions for Industrial Arch- ology,” was jointly devised by the editors, and sponsored by English Heritage, with the intention of gathering together leading industrial and historical archaeologists from around the world. Speakers were asked to consider aspects of contemporary theory and practice, as well as possible future directions for the study of industrialisation and - dustrial societies. It perhaps?tting that this meeting was convened in Manchester, which has a rich industrial heritage, and has recently been proclaimed as the “archetype” city of the industrial revolution (McNeil and George, 2002). However, just as Manchester is being transformed by reg- eration, shaking off many of the negative connotations associated st with factory-based industrial production, and remaking itself as a 21 century city, then so too, is the archaeological study of industrialisation being transformed. In the most recent overview of industrial archaeology in the UK, Sir Neil Cossons cautioned that industrial archaeology risked becoming a “one generation subject”, that stood on the edge of oblivion, alongside th the mid-20 century pursuit of folklife studies (Cossons 2000:13). It is to be hoped that the papers in this volume demonstrate that this will not be the case.

This book of Springer Proceedings in Geoarchaeology and Archaeological Mineralogy contains selected papers presented at the 7th Geoarchaeology Conference, which took place during October 19–23, 2020, at the South Urals Federal Research Center, Ural Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Miass, Russia. The Proceedings combine studies in archeometry, geoarchaeology, and ancient North Eurasian technologies, including paleometallurgy, stone tools investigation, past exploitation of geological resources, bioarchaeology, residue analysis, pottery, and lithics studies. This book also specializes in various non-organic materials, rocks, minerals, ores, and metals, especially copper and metallurgical slags. Many types of research also use modern analytical methods of isotopic, chemical, and mineralogical analysis to address the composition and structure of ancient materials and the technological practices of past human populations of modern Russia, Ukraine, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Mongolia. This book is intended for archaeologists, historians, museum workers, and geologists, as well as students, researchers from other disciplines, and the general public interested in the interdisciplinary research in the field of archaeology and archaeological materials, strategies and techniques of past quarrying, mining, metallurgy and lithic technologies at different chronological periods in Eurasian steppe and adjacent forest zone.

Many archaeologists and anthropologists of note contributed chapters to this collection, which pays tribute to archaeologist George Irving Quimby on his 1983 retirement from the University of Washington. James Griffin, Albert Spaulding, Lewis Binford, David Brose, and many more write here about archaeology in the Midwest and other areas of North America. Griffin contributes the first chapter: “George Irving Quimby: The Formative Years.”

The book discusses the creative mental processes of the prehistoric and contemporaryartists, as well as of the archaeologists studying them from the perspective ofcognition and art. Its intention is to highlight the artistic thinking within theimagination of the archaeologist, as well as to discuss the concepts of imagination andart in the current scientific research.From this perspective the book suggests a type of research closer to the complexity ofthe human nature and human thinking that can approach cultural and psychologicalsubjects ignored until now.It is hoped that one of the results of the book will be the formulation of new meaningsfor art from the perspective of archaeology.Responding to the recent ongoing growing interest in the art-archaeology interaction,the editor has carefully selected papers written by a series of eminent European andAmerican scholars with a background in ancient and contemporary art, symbolicthinking, semiotics, and archaeological imagination, with the intention of introducingnew arguments and discussions into the emerging art-archaeology discourse. Thebook is composed of three parts: “Art and the ancient mind”, “Experiencing theancient mind”, and “Exploring the act of creation”.

The human cost in any conflict is of course the first care in terms of the reduction, if not the elimination of damage. However, the destruction of archaeology and heritage as a consequence of civil and international wars is also of major concern, and the irreversible loss of monuments and sites through conflict has been increasingly discussed and documented in recent years. Post-Conflict Archaeology and Cultural Heritage draws together a series of papers from archaeological and heritage professionals seeking positive, pragmatic and practical ways to deal with conflict-damaged sites. For instance, by showing that conflict-damaged cultural heritage and archaeological sites are a valuable resource rather than an inevitable casualty of war, and suggesting that archaeologists use their skills and knowledge to bring communities together, giving them ownership of, and identification with, their cultural heritage. The book is a mixture of the discussion of problems, suggested planning solutions and case studies for both archaeologists and heritage managers. It will be of interest to heritage professionals, archaeologists and anyone working with post-conflict communities, as well as anthropology, archaeology, and heritage academics and their students at a range of levels.

This unique collection applies globalization concepts to the discipline of archaeology, using a wide range of global case studies from a group of international specialists. The volume spans from as early as 10,000 cal. BP to the modern era, analysing the relationship between material culture, complex connectivities between communities and groups, and cultural change. Each contributor considers globalization ideas explicitly to explore the socio-cultural connectivities of the past. In considering social practices shared between different historic groups, and also the expression of their respective identities, the papers in this volume illustrate the potential of globalization thinking to bridge the local and global in material culture analysis. The Routledge Handbook of Archaeology and Globalization is the first such volume to take a world archaeology approach, on a multi-period basis, in order to bring together the scope of evidence for the significance of material culture in the processes of globalization. This work thus also provides a means to understand how material culture can be used to assess the impact of global engagement in our contemporary world. As such, it will appeal to archaeologists and historians as well as social science researchers interested in the origins of globalization.

Care-giving is an activity that has been practiced by all human societies. From the earliest societies through to the present, all humans have faced choices regarding how people in positions of dependency are to be treated. As such, care-giving, and the form it takes, is a central experience of being a human and one that is culturally mediated. Archaeology has tended to marginalise the study of care, and debates surrounding our ability to recognise it within the archaeological record have often remained implicit rather than a focus of discussion. These 12 papers examine the topic of care in past societies and specifically how we might recognise the provision of care in archaeological contexts and to open up an inter-disciplinary conversation, including historical, bioarchaeological, faunal and philosophical perspectives. The topic of ‘care'is examined through three different strands: the provision of care throughout the life course, namely that provided to the youngest and oldest members of a society; care-giving and attitudes towards impairment and disability in prehistoric and historic contexts, and the role of animals as both recipients of care and as tools for its provision.

There are many recoverable aspects and indications concerning medicine and healing in the ancient past – from the archaeological evidence of skeletal remains, grave-goods comprising medical and/or surgical equipment and visual representations in tombs and other monuments thorough to epigraphic and literary sources. The 42 papers presented here cover many aspects medicine in the Mediterranean world during Antiquity and early Byzantine times, bringing together both internationally established specialists on the history of medicine and researchers in the early stages of their career. The contributions are grouped under a series of headings: medicine and archaeology; media (online access to electronic corpus); the Aegean; medical authors/schools of medicine; surgery; medicaments and cures; skeletal remains; new research in Cyprus; Asklepios and incubation; and Byzantine, Arab and medieval sources. These subject areas are addressed through a combination of wide ranging archaeological and osteological data and the examination and interpretation of philosophical, literary and historiographical texts to provide a comprehensive suite of studies into early practices in this fundamental field of human experience.

This volume initiates a new series of books on maritime or underwater archaeology, and as the editor of the series I welcome its appearance with great excitement. It is appropriate that the first book of the series is a collection of articles intended for gradu­ ate or undergraduate courses in underwater archaeology, since the growth in academic opportunities for students is an important sign of the vitality of this subdiscipline. The layman will enjoy the book as well. Academic and public interest in shipwrecks and other submerged archaeological sites is indicated by a number of factors. Every year there are 80 to 90 research papers presented at the Society for Historical Archaeology's Conference on Historical and Underwater Archaeology, and the Proceedings are published. Public interest is shown by extensive press coverage of shipwreck investigations. One of the most important advances in recent years has been the passage of the Abandoned Shipwreck Act of 1987, for the first time providing national-level law con­ cerning underwater archeological sites. The legislation has withstood a number of legal challenges by commercial treasure salvors, a very hopeful sign for the long-term pres­ ervation of this nonrenewable type of cultural resource. The underwater archaeological discoveries of 1995 were particularly noteworthy. The Texas Historical Commission discovered the Belle, one of La Salle's ships, and the CSS Hunley was found by a joint project of South Carolina and a private nonprofit organization called NUMA.

Arising initially from a conference, the papers published here have been integrated into book form to provide information on human activities and the tropical rainforest in the past and present, and on the possible future of the rainforest, in a unique way. Other books have considered some, but not all, of these themes; however, none has stressed the continuity of change over time and its possible outcome for the people of the forest as well as for the forest itself. Because of the approach taken, this book should appeal across traditional disciplinary boundaries. Indeed a prime aim has been to suggest that rainforest, because of its complexity and the complexity of people-rainforest relationships throughout time, deserves study from a broad perspective. This book poses more questions than answers about the rainforest and it is hoped that it will encourage readers to think about the rainforest in a wider way than hitherto. This book is aimed at geographers (physical and human), social anthropologists, archaeologists, pedologists, foresters and tropical botanists and will be of value to graduates of various disciplines setting out to research the rainforest.

We present certain empirico-statistical methods for the analysis of narrative and nu­ merical data extracted from different texts of historical character such as chronicles or annals. They are based on several statistical principles worked out by the author, and originally reported at the Third International Vilnius Conference on Probability Theory and Mathematical Statistics in 1981. The principal results were published in the papers [15]-[32], [293]-[299], [304]-[319] and in the book: A. T. Fomenko, Methods for Statistical Analysis of Narrative Texts and Applications to Chronol­ ogy, Moscow Univ. Press, Moscow, 1990 (in Russian). See also Part 1. The methods are applied to the problem of correct dating of the events in ancient and medieval history. These results induce conjectures on the redating of some important ancient historical events. Generally speaking, we might say that the commonly accepted'Modern Text­ book'of ancient and medieval European, Mediterranean, Egyptian and Middle Eastern history is a fibered (layered) chronicle obtained by gluing together four nearly identical copies of a shorter'original'chronicle. The other three chronicles are obtained from the'original'chronicle by redating and renaming the events de­ scribed in them; we rigidly move the'original'chronicle in its entirety backwards in time by approximately 333, 1053 and 1778 years. Thus, the full'Modern Textbook'can be reconstructed from its smaller part, namely from the'original'chronicle for the 9-17th cc. A.D. See Appendix 1, Figs. 101-104.

Essays dealing with the question of how the theory and practice of archaeology should engage with the recent past.Heritage, memory, community archaeology and the politics of the past form the main strands running through the papers in this volume.The authors tackle these subjects from a range of different philosophical perspectives, with manydrawing on the experience of recent community, commercial and other projects. Throughout, there is a strong emphasis on both the philosophy of engagement and with its enactment in specific contexts; the essays deal with an interest in the meaning, value and contested nature of the recent past and in the theory and practice of archaeological engagements with that past. Chris Dalglish is a lecturer in archaeology at the University of Glasgow. Contributors: Julia Beaumont, David Bowsher, Terry Brown, Jo Buckberry, Chris Dalglish, James Dixon, Audrey Horning, Robert Isherwood, Robert C Janaway, Melanie Johnson, Siân Jones, Catriona Mackie, Janet Montgomery, Harold Mytum, Michael Nevell, Natasha Powers, Biddy Simpson, Matt Town, Andrew Wilson

LEWIS R. BINFORD AND AMBER L. JOHNSON The organizers of this volume have brought together authors who have worked on local sequences, much as traditional archaeologists tended to do, however, with the modern goal of addressing evolutionary change in hunter-gatherer systems over long time spans. Given this ambitious goal they wisely chose to ask the authors to build their treatments around a focal question, the utility of the forager-eollector continuum (Binford 1980) for research on archaeological sequences. Needless to say, Binford was flat­ tered by their choice and understandably read the papers with a great deal of interest. When he was asked to write the foreword to this provoca­ tive book he expected to learn new things and in this he has not been disappointed. The common organizing questions addressed among the contributors to this volume are simply, how useful is the forager-eollector continuum for explanatory research on sequences, and what else might we need to know to explain evolutionary change in hunter-gatherer adaptations? Most sequences document systems change, in some sense. Though we don't necessarily know how much synchronous systemic variability there might have been relative to the documented sequence, most authors have tried to address the problem of within systems variability. In this sense, most are operating with sophistication not seen among traditional culture historians. The primary problem for archaeologists of the generation prior to Binford was how to date archaeological materials.

This book is based on the Thinking through the Body workshop held at the University of Wales, Lampeter, in June 1998. We would like to thank the University of Wales, Lampeter, and in particular the Department of Archaeology for financial and other support; the student volunteers for their help in organizing the conference; and the participants for co-operating in preparing their papers for pre-circulation. An exhibition of works by contemporary artists dealing with the body was also held in conjunction with the academic conference and contributed greatly to the intellectual, aesthetic and social atmosphere. We would like to thank all the artists, Ron Dukelow and Cambria Arts for agreeing to participate in the workshop and for organizing and mounting the exhibition. CONTENTS List of Figures and Tables ix List of Contributors xi Introduction: Thinking Through the Body Yannis Hamilakis, Mark Pluciennik and Sarah Tarlow..................... 1 Part 1: Bodies, Selves and Individuals Introduction Sarah Tarlow......................................................................................... 23 1 Archaeology's humanism and the materiality of the body Julian Thomas.................................................................................. 29 2 Body Parts: personhood and materiality in the earlier Manx neolithic Chris Fowler..................................................................................... 47 3 Moralities of dress and the dress of the dead in early medieval Europe Jos Bazelmans.................................................................................. 71 4 The aesthetic corpse in nineteenth-century Britain Sarah Tarlow.................................................................................... 85 Part 2: Experience and Corporeality Introduction Yannis Hamilakis.................................................................................. 99 5 Feeling through the body:gesture in Cretan Bronze Age Religion Christine Morris and Alan Peatfield................................................ 105 6 The past as oral history: towards an archaeology of the senses Yannis Hamilakis.............................................................................

The inspiration for this volume of contributed papers stemmed from conversations between the editors in front of Chuck Hilton's poster on the determinants of hominid walking speed, presented at thel998 meetings of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists (AAPA). Earlier at those meetings, Jeff Meldrum (with Roshna Wunderlich) had presented an alternate interpretation of the Laetoli footprints based on evidence of midfoot flexibility. As the discussion ensued we found convergence on a number of ideas about the nature of the evolution of modem human walking. From the continuation of that dialogue grew the proposal for a symposium which we called From Biped to Strider: the Emergence of Modem Human Walking. The symposium was held as a session of the 69th annual meeting of the AAPA, held in San Antonio, Texas in 2000. It seemed to us that the study of human bipedalism had become overshadowed by theoften polarized debates over whether australo­ pithecines were wholly terrestrial in habit, or retained a significant degree of arboreality.

This collection of 29 papers grew out of a symposium entitled'Setting the Future Agenda for Neotropical Primates.'The symposium was held at the Department of Zoo­ logical Research, National Zoological Park, Washington D. C., on February 26-27, 1994, and was sponsored by the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, Smith­ sonian Institution, and Friends of the National Zoo. We put the symposium together with two objectives: to honor Warren G. Kinzey for his contributions to the growing field of platyrrhine studies and to provide researchers who work in the Neotropics with the oppor­ tunity to discuss recent developments, to identify areas of research that require additional study, and especially to help guide the next generation of researchers. The symposium provided the opportunity to recognize Warren as a mentor and col­ laborator to the contribution of the study of platyrrhines. Contributions to the book were expanded in order to provide a more comprehensive view of platyrrhine evolution and ecology, to emphasize the interdisciplinary nature of many of these studies, and to high­ light the central role that New World monkeys play in advancing primatology. If this vol­ ume were to require major revisions after just one more decade of research, that would be a fitting testament to Warren's enthusiasm and his drive to continually update the field with new ideas and methods. Tributes to Warren and a list of his publications have been published elsewhere (Norconk, 1994, 1996; Rosenberger 1994, 1995).

Jean-Pierre BOCQUET-APPEL CNRS, Paris, France The written data used by demographers essentially cover the last five centuries. Since Homo ergaster moved out of Africa around 1. 8 million years ago and until the sub-contemporary periods, there is no data allowing us to reconstruct a demographic history that can be interpreted with the traditional tools of demography. If we want to be able to tackle demographic issues over a long evolutionary duration, trying to reconstitute our human demographic history and thinking out and testing macro-demographic theories, we need to draw on sources other than written data and on techniques other than those commonly used by demographers. This necessarily means using inf- mation of every kind, from archaeology, physical anthropology, pale- tology, primatology or genetics, along with relevant models of interpretation. The volume presented here has been developed from a core of papers selected for the paleodemographic session of the 25th World Population Congress (July 2005, Tours, France), to which further requested contri- tions have been added. The publication covers recent paleodemographic innovations, in terms of data, techniques and the detection of patterns making it possible to highlight hitherto unknown prehistoric demographic processes. Now that the anxiety over ways of defusing the population “time bomb”, which mobilized mainstream demographic thinking as from the 1960s (see, for authority, Bogue and Tsui 1979; Demeny 1979) has largely been dis- pated, the focus has shifted to other important issues.

Editor William K. Macdonald presents several essays on contract archaeology, or archaeological work done by companies or agencies on sites that typically are about to be destroyed by construction. Thomas J. Riley reports on contract archaeology and the academic world; James E. Fitting writes from the perspective of a state archaeologist; Macdonald and Alex H. Townsend report on problems in corporate archaeology; Townsend writes about how contracts are acquired; and Steven A. LeBlanc reports on the need for regions to have an overall research design and to follow best practices in hiring, technological improvements, and storage.

The papers in this volume represent a range of approaches to the study of the symbolic roles of animals in human cultures. The theme that unites these papers is their use of a variety of different kinds of evidenceincluding archaeological, faunal, historical, ethnographic, artistic, and folkloric datain the reconstruction of animal symbolism.

The exciting discoveries and newest revelations in the field of archeoastronomy present fascinating examples of the importance of astronomy to the ancient Maya Civilization. Through technological advancements made in the archeoastronomy community, this book will allow you to uncover a time capsule from an ancient past. In a clear and comprehensible manner you will read about art and architecture from various important Maya cities, drawn from diverse time periods and from different geographical areas of Mesoamerica. The topics covered include new findings in wide variety of fields; including the history's of astronomy, science, art, architecture, literature and religion. You will explore in this book how the motions of the heavens were closely watched and notated by Maya astronomers and how those celestial objects determined the patterns of everyday life, religious rites, community festivals, agriculture, even birth and death! This book will open your mind to a deeper awareness and an even greater admiration for the Maya ingenuity in preserving their astronomical knowledge and passing it on to assist future generations. These latest findings will broaden our perception of the Maya cultures of the Pre-classic and their development through the Classic period and the remarkable changes that occurred throughout their 3000 years of history.

This multi- and interdisciplinary book will offer novel environmental history (EH) research on Dinaric Karst, one of European largest continuous karstic areas, from prehistory to contemporary history. Various methodological approaches will be applied (e.g., archival investigations, oral-history interviews, field work and laboratory analyses). Historical human adaptations to karstic environmental conditions, human interventions in environment, environmental dynamics and impacts of environmental change will be dealt with by focusing on historical uses of natural resources, their further ecological implications (e.g., fire hazard) and their change over time, on natural and social impacts of changes in weather and climate, on pollution and on intellectual EH. General characteristics and local peculiarities will be identified based on comparisons with foreign literature. Primary audience are historians, geographers, archaeologists, anthropologists, ethnologists, foresters and landscapearchitects.Chapters 1, 5, 12 and 16 are available open access under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License via link.springer.com.

This book is of relevance to all archaeologists and all others concerned with how an interest in the past impacts on the present. This book explores the manner in which archaeology as a discipline and a field of endeavour contributes to the modern world. The focus throughout the book is on practices - the range of different things that archaeologists do and how they do and have done it in order to explore the field as a distinctive aspect of social practice over time. It also concerns the structures – social, political, economic, professional, philosophical – in which archaeology is performed and the consequences for the discipline and its practitioners. Throughout there is a concern especially with archaeology as a field of political and ethical decision-making, aspects well recognised by practitioners but rarely emphasised. The book both asks and answers questions about the perception of archaeology from both within and outside the field. The book draws widely on previous work by the author and others – looking at the techniques of the field, the people involved, the political and social impacts both on and by the field. In doing so it seeks to bring these different perspectives together to create a more holistic idea of what archaeology is, has been, and could be. The book is offered to those outside the field as a justification for archaeology – a field coming under increasing pressure from those who consider it (as so many humanities and social science disciplines) as an expensive luxury.

This contributed volume offers a wealth of cases that explore the factors and conditions required for heritage tourism to be economically and socially beneficial to local communities without impairing the natural environment, cultural heritage preservation, or sustainability for future generations. The studies presented here comprise an examination of measures which have been and can be implemented to ensure sustainable use of natural and cultural systems, leading to a new concept of tourism that incorporates science and community practices together to create a favorable environment where tourists and locals can experience meaningful interactions and experiences. The book focuses on the role of stakeholders in the development of a new policy regarding the sustainable management of cultural tourism and the possibility of their involvement in the processes governing policy-making. Emphasis is placed on the role and commitment of local and international authorities, including UNESCO, in preserving the world's endangered cultural and natural heritage, as well as the responsibilities of Member States and public and private actors with respect to future conservation challenges.

This book provides the results of an extensive scientific measurements campaign using advanced technologies and innovative non-invasive approaches carried out for the first time in such large numbers inside one of the most important baroque residences in Italy, the Chigi Palace in Ariccia, near Rome (Italy), with the aims of monitoring, characterizing and documenting several kinds of heritage items with different conservative and artistic issues. The analyses involved several research groups from regional universities (Sapienza, Tor Vergata, Roma 3) and research institutions (ENEA, INFN, CNR) and they were performed within the ADAMO project, which was addressed to technologies of analysis, diagnostics and monitoring for the preservation and restoration of Cultural Heritage. The project was proposed by the Centre of Excellence at the Technological District for Cultural Heritage (DTC) financed by the Lazio Region. At the Chigi Palace, important collections of paintings, documents, statues and wall decorations are preserved, dating back from the 16th up to the 18th centuries. The purpose of this book is twofold: it provides an overview of methodologies and technologies currently available in the field of heritage science, through the presentation of their in situ applications for the study of different artworks and materials; furthermore, it shows how the non-invasive analyses and the integration of diagnostic results are useful and sometimes crucial, for the overall understanding of heritage items, their conservation status, and for their correct conservation. This book is addressed at a large audience with both humanistic and scientific backgrounds, focusing the reader's attention on the information gained from multidisciplinary studies, also allowing a curious look at scientific methodologies applied to an art-historical context.

This book presents detailed research regarding the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, including studies of inscriptions on bones or tortoise shells, bronzeware, bamboo scripts, and silk manuscripts, in order to demonstrate the main features of various historical periods during the establishment and development of ancient Chinese civilization based on an a view of ancient Chinese civilization studies as a whole. The book consists of three sections with a total of 38 essays. The first section provides a macro-level overview of the formation and development history of ancient Chinese civilization; the second section, covering general topics, examines the specific characteristics of early Chinese civilization, from Emperors Yan and Huang to the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. Lastly, the appendix features 7 articles, including a short biography of the author.

The question of how to define the territories of the ancient polities (city-kingdoms) of Iron Age Cyprus is a fascinating, but also a very difficult one. While this topic has already been widely explored by previous scholarship, recent investigations that include both modern approaches, such as the application of landscape archaeological methodologies, as well as a re-evaluation of the available archaeological evidence from a new perspective, now offers a fresh take on such questions. A workshop organized in Berlin in 2018 aimed at discussing additional information on the topography of the ancient city of Idalion and its hinterland. This volume therefore includes unique contributions that deal with a wide array of relevant aspects. They provide new information on the location, chronology and character of settlements, necropoleis and sanctuaries from the wider area of Idalion, and discuss important issues such as the continuity or discontinuity of settlement activities from the (Late) Bronze Age to the Iron Age and how this is reflected by material culture. They address questions concerned with the physical control of territories and communication networks by considering Idalion's resource availability and the overall development of its rural settlement pattern in contrast to that of its neighbouring polities.

This open access volume showcases the intersection of geophysics and archaeology on a global scale, emphasising the evolution and application of geophysical methods in archaeological research and cultural heritage management. It compiles contributions from 74 experts based in 18 countries, with their research and case studies spanning across 24 different countries, focusing on the use of near-surface geophysical techniques and their integration with soil analyses and other methods to enrich archaeological interpretations. Prepared under the auspices of the collaborative network fostered by COST Action SAGA - CA17131, this work navigates through the successes and challenges encountered in the widespread adoption of archaeo-geophysical methods across diverse geographic and cultural landscapes. It offers a comprehensive chronicle of the genesis, maturation, and cutting-edge advancements in geophysical techniques, advocating for their amplified integration within the archaeological community. Incorporating an array of case studies and critical discussions on methodological and interpretive questions, the book underscores the importance of multidisciplinary collaboration, and defines perspectives for innovation and growth within the field. As an open-access work,'WORLD ARCHAEO-GEOPHYSICS'aims to contribute to the democratisation of knowledge, fostering shared learning and cooperative engagement among professionals, academics, students and archaeology enthusiasts alike. Funded by the European Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST) and supported by the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), this volume stands as a legacy of the resilient spirit of collaboration that defined the COST Action SAGA community, even in the face of pandemic challenges. It invites the academic and professional community to engage in new explorations and advancements, positioning itself as a reference for current and future endeavors in archaeo-geophysics.

The high-resolution palynological study of the varved sediments of Lake Montcortès has provided a unique record of the regional vegetation shifts over the last 3000 years and of the natural and anthropogenic drivers of ecological change, unparalleled in the Mediterranean. This book shows in detail how the terrestrial ecosystems of Montcortès have responded to climatic events such as the Medieval Climate Anomaly or the Little Ice Age, as well as to varying intensities of anthropogenic pressure from the Bronze Age to the present. The knowledge gained from this palaeoecological study is useful not only for understanding how the modern landscapes of the Pyrenees were shaped, but also for conserving biodiversity and ecosystems in the face of future environmental changes related to ongoing global change. The book is aimed at researchers, university teachers and advanced graduate students in a wide range of disciplines including ecology, palaeoecology, environmental science, biodiversity, geography, sedimentology, archaeology, anthropology, and biodiversity conservation.

This book is the voice of everyday people talking about their city's poetry–prose transformation. Through the narrative-imagination of the local lives, the book takes the reader on a journey of the past–present–future of Yazd: how the city was formed and transferred from the historic core to the newer parts over time; how people daily engage with the city; why some people enjoy living in the Historic Yazd while others prefer dwelling in the Old and New cities; why these areas are still occupied with the locals keeping the whole city alive and dynamic; if there is a socio-cultural interrelationship between these areas; and hearing the locals'wishes about the future of their city. Using the'shoe'as a symbol of various social fabrics of Yazd, the book reveals unseen important matters affecting city life from the moment residents put on their shoes to engage within the city and their public lives to the time they remove their shoes on entering their households to share in their private lives. Beyond hearing the locals'voices, the book also examines to what extent scholars'definitions of place are in parallel or in contrast with the ordinary people's definitions of their living places. The book aims to introduce a new urban methodology to urban studies so that local voices can truly be considered in urban planning and design projects. This approach is particularly absent in Iranian urban studies on which this book attempts to investigate, which was examined in Yazd.

This open access book discusses cooperation strategies for safeguarding cultural heritage in nations facing diverse forms of fragility. Through case studies and a critical analysis, it explores preserving cultural heritage to spur regional socioeconomic development and community empowerment, focusing on the Middle East and Pakistan, with an in-depht exploration of the World Heritage site of Bamiyan, Afghanistan. The first section offers an overview of cultural heritage protection efforts since UNESCO designated Bamiyan Valley as a World Heritage Site in 2003, reflecting on challenges and successes before Taliban rule. The second section turns to the present situation, analysing the inerplay between heritage preservation, community involvement and policies addressing urban and demographic growth. The third section provides a review of relevant examples of cultural heritage preservation in the Middle East and Pakistan by the Italian Agency for Development Cooperation, UNESCO, and international NGOs. It highlights the relationship between heritage protection, sustainable development and the mitigation of social and economic fragilities. In the concluding section, the book synthesizes research findings and operational approaches, providing a nuanced understanding of the cultural heritage, development, and fragility in the Middle East. Concluding, in the fourth section, the book offers a comprehensive report on main methodological findings, also conferrable to other contexts both in terms of future research and operational activities.

This volume explores violence in bioarchaeological case studies from various cultures, geographic regions, and time periods throughout the Eastern Hemisphere through the lens of Neil Whitehead's concept of poetics. It emphasizes the role and power of performance and ritual in violent acts, and how different types of violence are used within societies. Whitehead's poetics of violence model has primarily been applied to Western Hemisphere assemblages and indigenous groups, and this is the first volume dedicated to the application of this theoretical model to Europe, Asia, and Africa. Developed from a symposium organized at the American Association of Physical Anthropologists annual meeting in 2018, this volume keeps a tight focus on the direct link between physical evidence for violence in human remains and the contextualized interpretations of how that violence may have functioned within an individual's society. This type of theoretical interpretation, which treats violence as ameaningful act firmly embedded within its cultural context, rather than as an aberration, is rarely applied to archaeological assemblages and human remains from the Eastern Hemisphere. This is the first volume to offer direct physical evidence for how violence was enacted and understood within different societies in the past. This volume aims to make these rigorous theoretical studies available to students and professionals in archaeology, anthropology, and bioarchaeology, and to provide a model for other researchers to interpret evidence of violence in human remains from archaeological contexts.

This book looks inward to reveal and analyse problems in archaeology itself. The subject explored in this volume include: humanistic attributes of archaeology, various archaeological theory, challenges in the development of archaeology, China Archaeology paradigms and'Chinese School', responsibilities and status of archaeology in society, and prospects of Archaeology in China. With years of engagement in philosophy and theory studies, the author raised many bold questions and contributed unique and original views. While the archaeological circle remained tacit about -'Chinese School'- a term proposed by leading authority Professor Su Bingqi, the author bravely voiced that archaeology needs a'Chinese school'. The'Chinese school'would facilitate both the reconstruction of cultural significance and the vying for international discourse power. The author also puts forward his thoughts on the current public archaeological fever, explaining and reflecting on the social responsibility, discourse power and how to present the archaeological discovery in a more accurate and efficient way to the public.

The study of childhood in historical archaeology enriches interpretations of the past, but also has the potential for contributing to the understanding of methodological and theoretical issues in archaeology. Archaeologically, children are understudied relative to both their demographic and social importance, partly because children are viewed as difficult to discern in the archaeological record. Historical archaeology, with its access to historical documents to supplement and illuminate archaeological evidence, provides an opportunity to gain a greater understanding of the ways children's daily lives in the past were expressed in historically changing types and patterns of material culture. Recent research presented in this volume contributes valuable perspectives for conceptualizing the historically changing social nature of childhood and methods for illuminating the roles of children. Case studies are designed to illustrate methodological and theoretical advances in the historical archaeology of materialized experiences, discourses, identities, places and their meanings associated with parenting and childhood. The volume is organized into three sections devoted to case studies about 1) how childhood and parenting have been socially constructed cross culturally and temporally, 2) social ideologies of childhood in contested spaces, and 3) the relationship between children's experiences and adult expectations of childhood. Each chapter demonstrates advances in current methods or theories used in the archaeology of childhood. A final discussant, drawn from the broader field of research on the archaeology of childhood, provides a commentary on the ways the perspectives provided in the volume can be employed by researchers outside the sub-discipline of historical archaeology.

This book is a collection of Nai Xia's quintessential works on Silk Road studies. A key resource in the field of Silk Road Archaeology, it features in-depth content, a broad range of material, careful textual research, and meticulous analysis. With thorough investigations of foreign coinage, silk textiles, and artifacts with foreign styles excavated in different parts of China, it explores the exchange between ancient China and Central Asia, Western Asia, and Europe. In particular, this book provides detailed descriptions of the economic and cultural ties between ancient China, Pre-Islamic Arabia, the Sasanian Empire, and the Byzantine Empire. The research propounds innovative theories on the history and evolution of East-West transportation routes, i.e., the overland Silk Road and the Maritime Silk Road. Based on the study of ancient relics and excavated artifacts, it points out that cultural exchange along the Silk Road was never unilateral, but instead, mutual influence and cooperation were obvious. Since ancient times, countries along the Silk Road have had a tradition of amicable foreign relations and the promotion of common interests. The book is intended for academics, scholars and researchers.

This volume presents the various ways in which the study of gender makes a difference in archaeological research, the archaeological academic milieu and the wider public's thinking about gender and considers avenues of future development. It addresses questions such as why gender matters for archaeology, while examining gender from various angles (including aspects such as subjectivity, embodiment, diet, multifaceted perspectives and intersectionality) and in various periods (prehistory, Ancient Egypt, Roman antiquity, the Middle Ages and the modern and contemporary periods). It also discusses the relationship between archaeology and other academic fields involving the study of gender, as well as representations and debates on gender in the media. The theme ‘gender and change in archeology'emerged out of concerns voiced within the ‘Archaeology and Gender in Europe'(AGE) working community of the European Association of Archaeologists (EAA) with respect to thefuture of gender archaeology. This book unites researchers of gender archaeology from two perspectives: that of gender archaeologists from academic milieus where the study of gender has long been established and who in the meantime came to feel that this avenue of inquiry had become predictable and lost its provocative power, and that of gender archaeologists from countries where this field was only recently introduced and who, while more enthusiastic about the utility of gender archaeology, are concerned with how to disseminate it among skeptical peers. Both groups of archaeologists mainly argue that, four decades on, the study of gender in archaeology is still able to generate considerable change in our understanding of past and present-day societies. The volume is primarily of interest to archaeologists and researchers of gender studies.

This book outlines, within the Italian national framework, the current and potential paths oriented towards a new concept of Architectural Heritage, through actions referring to Innovation and Experimentation and Protection and Transformation of the Architectural Heritage. The development of the themes is articulated in two sessions dealing with the aspects related to the analysis and mapping of Architectural Heritage to face the context of the current Climate Crisis and the development of projects and experimentations oriented to the Green and Digital Transition. The evolution of the concept of Heritage, as conceived by the United Nations 2030 Agenda and in the Green Deal and New European Bauhaus, aimed at constructing an inclusive and universally recognised definition to support supranational objectives of sustainable human development, gives rise to innovative strategies, methodologies and technologies that—in a direction of mitigation, contrast and adaptation to climatechange—allow for the safeguard, renewed management and a hope for valorisation of Heritage on a national scale. In this direction, the understanding of Architectural Heritage as a'non-renewable resource'determines the need to activate design experimentation laboratories oriented towards regeneration, articulated and complex, which require, in order to respond to the challenges posed by our era, a sensitive and dialogic multidisciplinary vision of a holistic type. In fact, on the one hand, it is necessary to redefine the usability and management methods of built heritage through the adoption of digital, mobility, energy, ecological, social, green and blue infrastructures; on the other hand, it is necessary to introduce new qualitative and quantitative parameters and performance indicators, adequate to verify the validity of the implemented strategies in a perspective of adaptation to climate change, able to clarify contents, processes and tools to contrast future risks. The pursuit of these objectives refers to the innovation of training paths, professionalising procedures, administrative regulations, and public policies that involve citizens and the private partnership towards a different project qualification and empowerment of stakeholders, inhabitants, professionals, and clients. The Technological Project makes it possible to activate different interventions aimed at acting, in an integrated manner, on assets, context and communities, according to an approach that reinterprets them on a common score, as proposed by the European Next Generation programme in three priority aspects: digitalisation and innovation, environmental transition, increased resilience and social sustainability of national economies. In this scenario, the interventions aimed at outlining sustainable development actions will have to place these concepts at the centre in a harmonious vision that starts from the recognition and enhancement of the Architectural Heritage, recognising itas a fundamental asset of the territories.

This volume is the first manual book to address fire-cracked rock (FCR) or fire-affected rock analysis, thus filling a significant gap in the market and in the existing literature. This book develops a method and theory for how FCR was used, to familiarize readers with a new approach to FCR analysis. The book provides a history and background of fire-cracked rock and leads the reader through the entire process of identifying, categorizing, and analyzing FCR and related features, from the first steps through to interpretations of function, use-alteration, fracturing patterns, experimentation, ethnographic/ethnohistoric uses, and so forth. In addition to exploring the fundamentals of FCR analysis, the book will also cover new and cutting-edge techniques. This manual is designed to walk archaeologists from step one of FCR analysis to final advanced interpretations of use. It is meant to serve as a laboratory and field guide for students and professionals, containing illustrations, photographs, and case studies in order to familiarize readers with the identification and analysis process while also providing a theoretical and methodological guide for advance academic and cultural resource management research. Thus, this book is meant to target a wide global audience and spatiotemporal range, spanning hundreds of millennia of the human experience, from paleoanthropology and the early adoption of fire through to the present. Where FCR was once simply quantified according to weight and size, this book will transform it into a significant diagnostic artifact in the study of ancient foodways and domestic life. At sites where organic preservation is poor to non-existent, and the quotidian sphere is obscure, the use of FCR to determine cooking methods and everyday life will come as a breakthrough. This will be a pioneering manual for the study of FCR, focusing on the ways practicing archaeologists can infer function from their FCR collections.