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This study aims to explore the current published research on Language Massive Open Online Courses (LMOOCs), outlining the types of papers, countries where studies were performed and institutions devoted to this field. Also, it intends to classify the reviewed literature following a general categorisation of MOOCs, and to identify the main trends and topics of interest for LMOOC researchers. Results show that there is still a lack of LMOOC-related articles in CALL (computer assisted language learning) journals, since most of the publications in the period reviewed (2012-18) are conference papers. The country in which most studies have been done so far is Spain and Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED) is currently the most active institution in this area. Within the taxonomy established, the most popular categories of studies focused on LMOOC participants or providers and case studies. Systematic review of the published literature indicated that research trends in LMOOCs studies comprise: 1) conceptualisation of LMOOCs and their distinctive features; 2) attempts to find the most suitable model for language teaching and learning beyond the xMOOC/cMOOC dichotomy; 3) suitability of LMOOCs for languages for specific purposes (LSP) courses; 4) focus on the learners and their motivation and experience throughout the course; 5) reflection on the new role of the teacher; 6) instructional design and how it affects participants' learning and possible attrition; and 7) importance of social learning in LMOOCs. Nevertheless, LMOOCs is still an emerging field in need of further serious studies.

This paper outlines the concept of Flexible Pedagogy and how it can assist in addressing some of the issues facing STEM disciplines in general, and Computer Science in particular. The paper considers what flexible pedagogy is and how technologies developed by Computer Science can enable flexibility. It then describes some of the issues facing STEM education, with a particular focus on Computer Science education in Higher Education. Finally, it considers how flexible approaches to teaching and learning are particularly pertinent to the issues faced in Computer Science and future opportunities.

Purpose: This paper aims to present a comprehensive review of the present state and trends of smart education research. It addresses the need to have a systematic review of smart education to depict its research landscape in view of the growing volume of related publications. Design/methodology/approach: A bibliometric analysis of publications on smart education published in 2011 to 2020 was conducted, covering their patterns and trends in terms of collaboration, key publications, major topics and trends. A total of 1,317 publications with 29,317 cited references were collected from the Web of Science and Scopus for the bibliometric analysis. Findings: Research on smart education has been widely published in various sources. The most frequently cited references are all theoretical or discussion articles. Researchers in the USA, China, South Korea, India and Russia have been most active in research collaborations. However, international collaborations have remained infrequent except for those involving the USA. The research on smart education broadly covered smart technologies as well as teaching and learning. The emerging topics have addressed areas such as the Internet of Things, big data, flipped learning and gamification. Originality/value: This study depicts the intellectual landscape of smart education research, and illustrated the evolution and emerging trends in the field. The results highlight its latest developments and research needs, and suggest future work related to research collaborations on a larger scale and more studies on smart pedagogies.

Research into tutoring at a distance has a fairly long history and the functions of tutors in distance education institutions are well understood. Over the past 20 years research into online tutoring has advanced significantly as such institutions have "gone electronic": in this paper we cite published research from the UK Open University. Recently, blogs, wikis and podcasts have arrived to supplement established systems like email, virtual learning environments (VLEs, such as Blackboard) and computer conferencing. Little research has been published so far, however, on tutoring distant students in three-dimensional multi-user virtual environments (3-D MUVEs). Distance educators may well ask whether the best practices from tutoring at a distance and online tutoring can be transferred to these environments, which do "not" resemble VLEs. To clarify what may or may not be feasible in a prime example of a 3-D MUVE, this paper elucidates tutoring by and through avatars on a Second Life Island created by the Beyond Distance Research Alliance at the University of Leicester (which has 7,000 students learning at a distance). It analyses what can be done in Second Life by way of meeting students' needs for tutoring, and discusses some of the opportunities and challenges inherent in asking students and tutors to meet in such an environment. (Contains 1 table.)

This paper addresses the question: how can e-learning be embedded in traditional universities so that it contributes to the transformation of the university? The paper examines e-learning strategies in higher education, locating the institutional context within the broader framework of national and international policy drivers which link e-learning with the achievement of strategic goals such as widening access to lifelong learning, and upskilling for the knowledge and information society. The focus will be on traditional universities i.e. universities whose main form of teaching is on-campus and face-to-face, rather than on open and distance teaching universities, which face different strategic issues in implementing e-learning. Reports on the adoption of e-learning in traditional universities indicate extensive use of e-learning to improve the quality of learning for on-campus students, but this has not yet translated into a significant increase in opportunities for lifelong learners in the workforce and those unable to attend on-campus. One vision of the future of universities is that "Virtualisation and remote working technologies will enable us to study at any university in the world, from home". However, this paper will point out that realisation of this vision of ubiquitous and lifelong access to higher education requires that a fully articulated e-learning strategy aims to have a "transformative" rather than just a "sustaining" effect on teaching functions carried out in traditional universities. In order words, rather than just facilitating universities to improve their teaching, e-learning should transform how universities currently teach. However, to achieve this transformation, universities will have to introduce strategies and policies which implement flexible academic frameworks, innovative pedagogical approaches, new forms of assessments, cross-institutional accreditation and credit transfer agreements, institutional collaboration in development and delivery, and, most crucially, commitment to equivalence of access for students on and off-campus. The insights in this paper are drawn from an action research case study involving both qualitative and quantitative approaches, utilising interviews, surveys and focus groups with stakeholders, in addition to comparative research on international best practice. The paper will review the drivers and rationales at international, national and institutional level which are leading to the development of e-learning strategies, before outlining the outcomes of a case study of e-learning strategy development in a traditional Irish university. This study examined the drivers and barriers which increase or decrease motivation to engage in e-learning, and provides some insights into the challenges of embedding e-learning in higher education. While recognising the desirability of reaching out to new students and engaging in innovative pedagogical approaches, many academic staff continue to prefer traditional lectures, and are sceptical about the potential for student learning in online settings. Extrinsic factors in terms of lack of time and support serve to decrease motivation and there are also fears of loss of academic control to central administration. The paper concludes with some observations on how university e-learning strategies must address staff concerns through capacity building, awareness raising and the establishment of effective support structures for embedding e-learning.

Learning analytics (LA) has emerged as a field that offers promising new ways to prevent drop-out and aid retention. However, other research suggests that large datasets of learner activity can be used to understand online learning behaviour and improve pedagogy. While the use of LA in language learning has received little attention to date, available research suggests that LA could provide valuable insights into task design for instructors and materials designers, as well as help students with effective learning strategies and personalised learning pathways. This paper first discusses previous CALL research based on learner tracking and specific affordances of LA for CALL, as well as its inherent limitations and challenges. The second part of the paper analyses data arising from the VITAL project that implemented LA in different blended or distance learning settings. Statistical and process-mining techniques were applied to data from 285 undergraduate students on a Business French course. Results suggested that most students planned their self-study sessions in accordance with the flipped classroom design. Other metrics measuring active online engagement indicated significant differences between successful and non-successful students' learner patterns. The research implied that valuable insights can be acquired through LA and the use of visualisation and process-mining tools.

Interest in the flipped classroom in higher education has burgeoned despite the literature revealing that the effects on assessment outcomes remain elusive. In this paper, we present the results of an empirical analysis designed to compare the impact on assessment outcomes of different approaches to the flipped classroom (didactic and non-didactic). Focusing on a cohort of Intermediate Economics students we investigated the influence of these approaches on their examination results by utilising an OLS (Ordinary Least Squares) regression and probit followed by quantile regression. Our analysis revealed small positive effects when students were exposed to the 'non-didactic' flipped classroom but no effect when pre-lecture materials were used didactically to mimic the material given in traditional lectures. This study demonstrates the need for further meta-analysis and longitudinal studies to investigate the relationship between different forms of the flipped classroom and student assessment outcomes.

Purpose: Today's technology supports the design of more and more sophisticated interactive learning environments. This paper aims to argue that such design should develop from first principles. Design/methodology/approach: In the paper by first principles is meant: learning theory and principles of course design. These principles are briefly outlined, key features of which include: the use of knowledge and task analysis methodology; the use of topic maps; and learning design that supports adaptive teaching. The paper goes on to describe how this approach to course design has been applied at the UK Defence Academy. Findings: The paper shows how conversation theory serves as a source of first principles for the design of interactive learning environments, as exemplified in the Course Assembly System and Tutorial Environment (CASTE). Originality/value: A principled approach to the design of interactive learning environments is of value in bringing order to a conceptually and methodologically confused domain of practice. (Contains 6 figures.)

Online language learning and teaching in multimodal contexts has been identified as one of the key research areas in computer-aided learning (CALL) (Lamy, 2013; White, 2014). This paper aims to explore meaning-making in online language learner interactions via desktop videoconferencing (DVC) and in doing so illustrate multimodal transcription and analysis as well as the application of theoretical frameworks from other fields. Recordings of learner DVC interactions and interviews are qualitatively analysed within a case study methodology. The analysis focuses on how semiotic resources available in DVC are used for meaning-making, drawing on semiotics, interactional sociolinguistics, nonverbal communication, multimodal interaction analysis and conversation analysis. The findings demonstrate the use of contextualization cues, five codes of the body, paralinguistic elements for emotional expression, gestures and overlapping speech in meaning-making. The paper concludes with recommendations for teachers and researchers using and investigating language learning and teaching in multimodal contexts.

Discussion of the use of computer-based information retrieval systems in schools focuses on three paper and pencil experiments conducted in the United Kingdom that were designed to investigate how 9- to 11-year-olds organized and retrieved information from four organizational structures: lists, hierarchies, networks, and tables. (18 references) (LRW)

Studies undertaken since the introduction of Web 2.0 have focussed mainly on open educational resources (OERs) such as email, blogging and virtual learning environments. No consistent efforts have been undertaken to study the use of social networking sites as a tool for learning in the second language classroom. This study examined the use of social networking sites as a means of establishing an asynchronous online environment for use in language learning in a classroom setting. The findings described are based on the use of a social networking site called Ning in a classroom during a summer school project, which was conducted at a further education college in the UK. The project focussed in particular on informal language practice when using social networking sites. The paper then examines the effect the use of the social networking tool had on group cohesion and learner-to-learner interaction, and how these, in turn, enhanced informal language learning due to an increase in learner collaboration. The study found that the use of Ning enhanced group cohesion and that learners started working in different groups once Ning was introduced. Finally, it highlights the potential technical and administrative barriers that can impede an institution in implementing its educational strategy in regards to OERs -- in this case, social networking sites in the classroom. The further education college in which this study took place had no policies in place in regards to the use of OERs in the classroom, thus the paper concludes with recommendations in regards to training and policies so that researchers and practitioners can learn from the project.

The celebration of EUROCALL's twentieth anniversary provides a proper occasion to reflect on the future of language teaching and the role of CALL in these developments. In this paper we present the views of six authorities on language teaching and learning from different EU countries. All of them have a special interest in CALL and/or are CALL experts and well respected EUROCALL members, such as the late Graham Davies. We present a selection of their observations based on a summary of the Skype interviews in which they contributed to a symposium entitled "And now for another century of modern language teaching…" organised by the Dutch national Association of Language Teachers on the occasion of its first centennial in 2011. To provide a more global (or at least European) perspective, the interviewees were asked to cover the same topics that were central to the live panel discussion delivered by six Dutch participants representing a variety of perspectives: secondary and university teachers, students, curriculum experts and teacher educators. By way of preparation, all involved had been given a number of challenging statements related to some aspects of the discussion theme: the characteristics of the future learning environment, teacher, learner, pedagogy and technology. In this audio-supported document we will focus on interesting points of view particularly related to pedagogy and technology expressed in the interviews. A video report summary of the live discussion (in Dutch) is available on the limited CD edition with recordings of the centennial festivities. For an impression of the panel discussion and other symposium activities see this video report on YouTube.

The long anticipated ubiquity of digital technologies is now established in the developed world. The manifestations and consequences are not entirely as predicted, perhaps nowhere more so than in the classroom. Amid a clamour for the banning of mobile phone use in school, it is timely to reflect upon the Utopian dream of an enriched experience of education mediated by computers and consider where it all went wrong. Computer-mediated instruction was supposed to free learners from the constraints which were preventing them from achieving their full potential. The barriers erected by inadequate teaching, impoverished curricula and limited assessment systems would be removed through the introduction of intelligent tutoring systems, worldwide access to information and comprehensive assessment protocols. In reality, the majority of OECD countries are still struggling to ensure that all school leavers have an adequate level of numeracy and literacy to serve their own and the national economy's needs. This paper considers policy and practice in the introduction of digital technologies in schools as recorded in the available research evidence. The data sources are predominantly from the UK with some US examples. What emerges goes to the heart of what is meant by a good education.

This paper describes and discusses a case study of postgraduate students undertaking accident investigation and risk assessment exercises in an online virtual world as part of their course curriculum. These exercises were constructed to overcome the ethical and practical barriers inherent in real-world exercises. In particular this paper focusses upon the potential of such exercises to facilitate the authentic dimension of situated learning and identifies some of the factors that affect the sense of authenticity in virtual world learning exercises. Thirteen such factors were identified. Nine of those were positive factors that enhanced the sense of authenticity; these were facilitation, presence and authority, visual realism, socialisation, comparative reality, engagement, active learning, generalizability and enabling learning from mistakes. The 4 negative factors which detracted from the sense of authenticity were the public image of virtual worlds, lack of naturalism, unrealistic graphics and lack of tactile sense. (Contains 3 figures and 1 table.)

This paper examines the emergence of schools "micro-computing" in the UK between 1977 and 1984--a period of significant educational, technological and political change. During this time, computing developed rapidly from a niche activity in a few select schools to the state subsidized purchasing of a "computer in every school" and the nationwide promotion of computers as a feature of curriculum and pedagogy. Through a series of in-depth retrospective interviews with key policy actors (n = 20) this paper develops a detailed "policy historiography" of this period--shedding light on the complex power relations and interests that underpinned these developments. In particular, the paper highlights the origins of these policy interventions in earlier activities, and examines the negotiations and conflicts between and within the two government departments involved in the mass introduction of computing into the UK school system.

Key to introducing information and communication technologies in museums is to support meaning-making activity in encounters with artefacts. The study presented in this paper is exploratory in nature and investigates the use of social and mobile technologies in school field trips as a means of enhancing the visitor experience. It is anchored in sociocultural perspectives of learning as meaning making, with a focus on mediating artefacts in the development of understanding. The Museum of London was selected as the site of the study and the participants were a Year 9 History class (13-14 years old) in a secondary school in Milton Keynes. The paper considers evidence of meaning making from students' online posts on Twitter (http://twitter.com) and activity on-site. Observational data, the visit's Twitter stream and post-visit interview data with the participants are presented and analysed. A mixed-method approach is employed to interpret the museum visit and examine young people's experience in the museum. Such an approach allows useful insights and shapes the understanding of how social and mobile technologies have an impact on the social dynamics of a school trip to a museum. Specifically, it explains the role of such tools in fostering the social interactions around museum artefacts and ultimately the process of shared construction of meaning making. (Contains 5 tables and 3 figures.)

This paper tackles two issues which are closely related: transition from pre-entry learning to studying at university and the role blended learning strategies might have in supporting this transition. It draws on the pilot delivery of two credit-bearing modules which were delivered in two pre-entry institutions. The modules followed two different models in terms of their alignment to the pre-entry curriculum and in their mode of delivery. They were evaluated through questionnaires and focus groups with students. Both university tutors and coordinators at the schools were also interviewed in order to identify barriers in the process from their perspectives. This paper contributes to research in this field by identifying, from the key stakeholders of students' and deliverers' vantage points, factors that are specific to the blended learning process and contribute to a more structured and positive transition experience for the students. It looks at how blended methodologies can enhance the transition process, as well as what some of the barriers might be. As a consequence, the paper will provide some suggestions as to how institutions may overcome some of those issues identified in order to replicate the practice successfully.

This paper explores the learning spaces associated with two geography undergraduate research journals. Wikis provide dedicated spaces for postgraduate reviewers to collaboratively develop constructive feedback to authors creating a supportive online learning environment. In becoming published authors, undergraduates reported that they gained not only academic recognition and curriculum vitae (CV) material but an ability to apply constructive criticism, a desire for more dialogue about their research and the motivation to publish further work in the future. This paper concludes that scaffolding the research writing process can be greatly enhanced by the strategic design of dialogic online learning space. (Contains 2 tables and 1 figure.)

All children are born with the gifts of curiosity and creativity--and an insatiable appetite for asking questions to find out about the world in which they live. Fostering these questions and developing inquisitive and investigating minds is one of the essential roles of parent and teacher, and the processes of enquiry are the necessary routes for nurturing and developing all children's potential for thoughtful discovery. The ethos of this paper is that "every child matters", and the underlying message is one of "inclusion with differentiation". The theme flowing throughout is that teachers and learners need to work interactively to construct knowledge; and, together, through this interaction, deep and sustained learning is promoted. When learners are truly involved in constructing knowledge for themselves, their motivation is high and both individual and group effort is sustained. Importantly, children in many communities are born into a rapidly changing technological world: they grow up using technological tools naturally, with ease and without fear, and they are often more proficient than their teachers! Learners are communicating globally, but all too often their technical skills and powers of communicating are not utilized in schools. In this paper Belle Wallace explains the Thinking Actively in a Social Context (TASC) Framework for thinking and problem-solving; Alessio Bernadelli recommends a wide range of software tools that he uses to develop TASC at secondary level; and Clare Molyneux and Clare Farrell describe a very successful primary project using TASC and Studywiz. (Contains 2 figures and 1 note.)

A level 6 module was developed in order to implement innovative assessment strategies and encourage higher level learning. The module tutor (one of this paper's authors) was seconded from teaching duties (40%) to the University's academic development unit to work on the module transformation. The rationale for the redesign of the assessment strategy was to enhance the student learning experience whilst taking an innovative approach to computer aided learning and assessment. Information technology enabled assessment strategies and ways of using computer based assessment in higher level learning were examined. The redesigned module has been delivered two years running, and the students' experience of the module evaluated following the final taught session each year. This paper outlines the experiences of the learners and the tutor and considers the potential for future development of blended learning and assessment. (Contains 5 tables.)

This paper reviews the themes emerging from Bangladeshi teachers' experiences of taking part in the initial research and the development stage of a professional development programme they were involved with. The Secondary Teaching and Learning Programme is an information and communications technologies-enhanced supported open distance learning programme of professional development in English-language teaching. This paper presents evidence arising from semi-structured interviews carried out with teachers from a pre-pilot study for the English in Action project. The teachers participating in this study reflect upon six months' experience of using professional development materials (course material of audio podcasts enhanced with text and images; videos of classroom practice; audio of classroom language) and classroom resources (audio recordings of text-book reading passages, songs, poems and stories), all accessed via portable digital media players (iPods). (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.)

This paper will offer a discussion of the literature concerning multimodality, orchestration and participation related to classroom use of the interactive whiteboard (IWB). Specifically, it will explore the place, or potential use, of the IWB to resource a multimodal approach to teaching and learning, emphasising the complex connections that need acknowledging when viewing the IWB in context. Comments on the IWB's effectiveness or otherwise, however, are beyond the scope of this paper. Conceptions of the role of language in mediating other modes and media, in terms of its centrality or complementarity, will necessarily be addressed by considering activities such as classroom talk aligned to other resources. The role of various actors (including teachers and learners) in designing, orchestrating and interpreting multimodal material will be considered. Whilst recognising the substantial debate regarding multimodality as an analytic lens, the discussion will focus on multimodality in terms of materials used in the classroom. (Contains 2 figures.)

This paper seeks to set the scene for the ensuing articles in this themed issue by placing the recent developments with interactive whiteboards (IWBs) in their historical context. It argues that use of this instructional technology has already had a profound impact upon teaching and highlights the importance of educational researchers considering both the micro and the macro context when they explore the impact of any instructional technology use. The paper moreover suggests that the IWB is emerging as the second great revolutionary instructional technology and is shaping as the development that is fundamentally changing the nature of schooling, moving it from its traditional paper-based form to digitally based organisation. The author's provocative stance stems from a perspective of directing and networking schools. Many of the subsequent papers elaborate examples of IWB use in classrooms, helping the reader to evaluate the argument using recent empirical research. (Contains 1 note and 1 figure.)