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Ethnopharmacological relevance The species of the genus Cirsium have been used as traditional Chinese medicine for hundreds of years. It is believed that Cirsium has the efficacies of cooling blood and stopping bleeding, dispelling blood stasis, detoxifying and eliminating carbuncle. At present, they are mainly used in treatment of the hemoptysis, hematemesis, hemoptysis, hematuria, traumatic bleeding and Henoch-Schonlein purpura. They are widely used in traditional Chinese medicine. Aim This paper systematically collated the classification, traditional use, pharmacological action, phytochemistry and clinical application of Cirsium plants in the past ten years, intending to provide a critical appraisal of current knowledge for future in-depth study and rational development and utilization of Cirsium plants. Material and methods This paper searched various databases (SciFinder, Science Direct, CNKI, Wiley online library, Spring Link, Web of Science, PubMed, Wanfang Data, Weipu Data), Chinese Pharmacopoeia 2020 Edition, Chinese Flora, Chinese Materia Medica and some local books on ethnopharmacology. Results More than ten species of Cirsium have been used as folk medicine, and modern pharmacological studies have shown that Cirsium has the effects of protecting liver, antioxidation, anti-tumor, anti-inflammation, antibacterial, etc. More than 200 chemical constituents such as flavonoids, triterpenes, sterols, phenylpropanoids have been isolated from Cirsium. Some ingredients show a wide variety of bioactivities including hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-tumor and other activities. At present, Cirsium medicinal plants, as traditional Chinese medicine, were mainly used to treat nephritis, Henoch-Schonlein purpura and hemorrhage, although some species used in folk lack of quality control systems. Conclusion Cirsium plants are a safe and effective medicine for cooling blood and hemostasis. Recent studies on pharmacology and phytochemistry also provide solid scientific evidences for the traditional application of this genus. It also shows significant hepatoprotective activity and may be a potential clinical candidate for the treatment of liver disease. However, the qualitative and quantitative analysis, pharmacokinetics-pharmacodynamics and mechanism of action also need in-depth study.

Relevance Bisbenzylisoquinoline (BBIQ) alkaloids are generally present in plants of Berberidaceae, Monimiaceae and Ranunculaceae families in tropical and subtropical regions. Some species of these families are used in traditional Chinese medicine, with the effects of clearing away heat and detoxification, promoting dampness and defecation, and eliminating sores and swelling. This article offers essential data focusing on 13 representative BBIQ compounds, which are mainly extracted from five plants. The respective botany, traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacokinetics, and toxicity are summarized comprehensively. In addition, the ADME prediction of the 13 BBIQ alkaloids is compared and analyzed with the data obtained. Materials and methods We have conducted a systematic review of the botanical characteristics, traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacokinetics and toxicity of BBIQ alkaloids based on literatures collected from PubMed, Web of Science and Elsevier during 1999–2020. ACD/Percepta software was utilized to predict the pharmacokinetic parameters of BBIQ alkaloids and their affinity with enzymes and transporters. Results Botany, traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacokinetic and toxicity of 13 alkaloids, namely, tetrandrine, dauricine, curine, trilobine, isotrilobine, cepharanthine, daurisoline, thalicarpine, thalidasine, isotetrandrine, liensinine, neferine and isoliensinine, have been summarized in this paper. It can't be denied that these alkaloids are important material basis of pharmacological effects of family Menispermaceae and others, and for traditional and local uses which has been basically reproduced in the current studies. The 13 BBIQ alkaloids in this paper showed strong affinity and inhibitory effect on P-glycoprotein (P-gp), with poor oral absorption and potent binding ability with plasma protein. BBIQ alkaloids represented by tetrandrine play a key role in regulating P-gp or reversing multidrug resistance (MDR) in a variety of tumors. The irrationality of their usage could pose a risk of poisoning in vivo, including renal and liver toxicity, which are related to the formation of quinone methide during metabolism. Conclusion Although there is no further clinical evaluation of BBIQ alkaloids as MDR reversal agents, their effects on P-gp should not be ignored. Considering their diverse distribution, pharmacokinetic characteristics and toxicity reported during clinical therapy, the quality standards in different plant species and the drug dosage remain unresolved problems.

Ethnopharmacological relevance Piperaceae is the fifth largest family of plants in Panama. This review focuses on the ethnomedical uses of the most prevalent Panamanian species and biological activities of their extracts and/or constituents both in Panama and worldwide. Many species have a plethora of ethnomedical uses such as antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antidiabetic, anti-Helicobacter pylori, antiulcer, antiprotozoal, estrogenic, insecticidal, local anesthetic, diuretic, and for women's health conditions. Aim of the review The aim of this review is to compile all ethnomedical uses of most prevalent species of Piper in Panama, and their extracts or phytoconstituents worldwide, through a complete literature search, so that it may allow selection of potential unexplored Piper species for future research and development of phytotherapeuticals for important ailments. Methodology This review conducted a thorough search in books and databases such as Google Scholar, PubMed, Sci-Finder, Scopus, ACS publications, Science Direct, and Reaxys (Elsevier), until October of 2017. The information provided in this review is based on peer-reviewed papers only in English. The key words used to search were: “Piper”, “Piperaceae”, “Panama”, “Pharmacological activity”, “Chemistry,” “Toxicity,” and “Clinical studies”. Scientific names of the plants were validated through www.tropicos.org . Potential full-texts of eligible papers, irrespective of database, were identified. Study selection and data extraction were conducted by one author (AIS) and confirmed by others (MPG, ADA). The extracted data were summarized in tabular form and a narrative description was used to provide a summary of updated information. Results The ethnomedical uses of most prevalent 23 Panamanian species of Piper both in Panama as well in the world are provided. Of these species only Piper arboreum, Piper auritum, Piper cordulatum, Piper hispidum, Piper dariense, Piper multiplinervium and Piper umbellatum have ethnomedical uses in Panama. Some of the uses are by native Amerindians of Panama. These include ailments such as liver pains, common colds, skin infections, insecticidal, as a bath to alleviate colds, snakebites, different types of pains, skin ailments, wound healing, rheumatism, women's health, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory. Other Panamanian species are widely used in many countries of the world. Of all the Piper species, P. aduncum has the most ethnomedical uses. Panamanian uses are different from the ones in other countries. A total of 61 compounds present in Piper species reported in this review have shown a variety of biological activities in vitro. These compounds belong to different chemical types, such as chromenes, amides, alkaloids, benzopyrans, benzoates, essential oils, pyrrolidines, flavokaines, chalcones, methylenedioxy propiophenones, cinnamates, monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, phenols, among others. From this review it is evident that extracts and pure compounds isolated from Piper species have shown a wide array of mainly in vitro activity and some ethnomedical uses may be correlated with their activities reported. Conclusions Plants of this genus have provided bioactive species, both from crude extracts and pure compounds thus substantiating their efficacy in traditional medicine. In vivo and toxicological studies are still limited, but the results of different activities of Piper reported point out the great potential of these species for obtaining bioactive principles that may be useful in treating diseases. However, a thorough investigation of Piper species relating to chemistry, in vivo pharmacological activities, with emphasis on their mechanism of action, safety and efficacy and toxicity is warranted.

Aim of the study This paper provides significant ethnobotanical information on pharmaceutical plant uses in the Riverside of Navarra. Thereby, it will extend and complement a recent previous study carried out in the Northern Navarra. This paper aim to collect, analyse and evaluate the ethnobotanical knowledge about medicinal plants in the Riverside of Navarra (Iberian Peninsula) with 2554.4 km 2 and 144,674 inhabitants. Material and methods We performed semi-structured interviews with 147 informants (mean age 76 years; the percentage of men and women was almost 50%) in 34 locations, identified the plants reported and analyzed the results, comparing them with those from other territories. Results The informants reported data on 90 medicinal plants belonging to 39 botanical families. This work is focused on human medicinal plant uses, which represent 99% of the pharmaceutical uses (541). The species with the highest number of cites are Santolina chamaecyparissus ssp. squarrosa , Thymus vulgaris , Rosmarinus officinalis and Urtica dioica . All different plant parts are used; aerial part is exploited more frequently than other plant parts. Most of the listed remedies use a single ingredient, typically soaked in water. The percentage of internal uses is three times higher than external uses. Conclusions The main ailments treated are digestive troubles, dermatological problems, and respiratory affections. Informants reported 11 new or scarcely cited uses for 8 medicinal plants. For 50% of the species (4) we have not found bibliographical references in the scientific literature and 50% have only one or two references.

Aim of the study We investigated the ethnomedical practices and knowledge of medicinal plant and fungus species of contemporary Yuracare and Trinitario ethnic groups from Indigenous Territory and National Park Isiboro-Secure (TIPNIS), located in the Bolivian Amazon region. Our aim was to identify the culturally most significant medicinal plant families, growth forms and species, as well as to assess the current state of knowledge regarding the bioactivity of the most important species, based on available literature data. Materials and methods Medicinal plant and fungus species were inventoried during homegarden and swidden sampling, walk-in-the-woods and transect sampling. Data on medicinal uses were obtained from 12 Yuracare and 14 Trinitario participants. Results We commence by providing a brief overview of Yuracare and Trinitario ethnomedical systems, highlighting the important shamanistic component of particularly Trinitario traditional medicine. The rest of the paper is dedicated to an analysis and discussion based on the 349 inventoried medicinal plant and fungus species. Contingency table and binomial analyses of medicinal plants used versus the total number of inventoried species per family showed that several plant families are significantly over (Piperaceae, Araceae, Solanaceae, Asteraceae and Siparunaceae) and underused (Chrysobalanaceae, Sapotaceae, Lauraceae, Celastraceae and Annonaceae) in traditional medicine in TIPNIS. Also herbaceous plants are significantly overrepresented in the medicinal plant inventory, which is in line with relevant literature. Our ranking of medicinal species according to cultural significance is based on the Quality Use Agreement Value (QUAV) index we developed and presented in a previous paper. Results indicate that the QUAV index's property to mainly select species that combine multiple ethnomedical uses with high informant consensus, justifies its use as a measure of cultural significance of medicinal plants in TIPNIS. Results of a literature search suggest, on the other hand, that the QUAV s score of a species could also be indicative of its bioactivity. Conclusions In addition to the QUAV index's value as a tool for assessing the cultural significance of medicinal species, it might also be useful to identify species with a higher likeliness of being bioactive.

In the present paper, we analyze the past, present and future of medicinal plants, both as potential antimicrobial crude drugs as well as a source for natural compounds that act as new anti-infection agents. In the past few decades, the search for new anti-infection agents has occupied many research groups in the field of ethnopharmacology. When we reviewed the number of articles published on the antimicrobial activity of medicinal plants in PubMed during the period between 1966 and 1994, we found 115; however, in the following decade between 1995 and 2004, this number more than doubled to 307. In the studies themselves one finds a wide range of criteria. Many focus on determining the antimicrobial activity of plant extracts found in folk medicine, essential oils or isolated compounds such as alkaloids, flavonoids, sesquiterpene lactones, diterpenes, triterpenes or naphtoquinones, among others. Some of these compounds were isolated or obtained by bio-guided isolation after previously detecting antimicrobial activity on the part of the plant. A second block of studies focuses on the natural flora of a specific region or country; the third relevant group of papers is made up of specific studies of the activity of a plant or principle against a concrete pathological microorganism. Some general considerations must be established for the study of the antimicrobial activity of plant extracts, essential oils and the compounds isolated from them. Of utmost relevance is the definition of common parameters, such as plant material, techniques employed, growth medium and microorganisms tested.

The majority of the population in Bangladesh uses traditional plant-based medicines to manage various ailments, including central nervous system (CNS) disorders. This review presents ethnobotanical information and relevant scientific studies on plants used in traditional healthcare for the management of various CNS disorders in Bangladesh. The information on the medicinal plants of Bangladesh effective against CNS disorders published in scientific journals, books, and reports was compiled from different electronic databases using specific key words. The present article provides comprehensive information on a total of 224 medicinal plant species belonging to 81 families used for the treatment of CNS disorders by the various peoples of Bangladesh. In total, we reviewed more than 290 relevant papers. In this study, leaves were found as the most often used plant organ, followed by roots, fruits, whole plants, barks, seeds, stems, rhizomes, and flowers. The Fabaceae family contributes the highest number of used species, followed by Rubiaceae, Lamiaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Vitaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Malvaceae, and Zingiberaceae. The most frequently used species (in decreasing order) areAsparagus racemosus, Centella asiatica, Stephania japonica,Aegle marmelos, Coccinia grandis, Tabernaemontana divaricata,Bacopa monnieri,Abroma augusta,andScoparia dulcis. This review may serve as a starting point for a rational search for neuroactive natural products against CNS disorders within the Flora of Bangladesh.Graphic Abstract

Ethnopharmacological relevance Numerous common pharmaceuticals, including anti-cancer, antiviral and antidiabetic drugs, are derived from traditional plant-derived medicines. With approximately 25,000 species of flora occurring in Australia that are adapted to the harsh environment, there is a plethora of novel compounds awaiting research in the context of their medicinal properties. Anecdotal accounts of plant-based medicines used by the Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples clearly illustrates high therapeutic activity. Aim This review aims to demonstrate the medicinal potentials of selected native Australian plants based on scientific data. Furthermore, it is anticipated that work presented here will contribute towards enhancing our knowledge of native plants from Australia, particularly in the prevention and potential treatment of disease types such as cancer, microbial and viral infections, and diabetes. This is not meant to be a comprehensive study, rather it is meant as an overview to stimulate future research in this field. Methods The EBSCOhost platform which included PubMed, SciFinder, Web of Knowledge, Scopus, and ScienceDirect databases were searched for papers using the keywords: medicinal plants, antioxidative, antimicrobial, antibacterial, anticancer, anti-tumor, antiviral or antidiabetic, as well as Australian, native, traditional and plants. The selection criteria for including studies were restricted to articles on plants used in traditional remedies which showed antioxidative potential and therapeutic properties such as anticancer, antimicrobial, antiviral and antidiabetic activity. Results Some plants identified in this review which showed high Total Phenolic Content (TPC) and antioxidative capacity, and hence prominent bioactivity, included Tasmannia lanceolata (Poir.) A.C. Sm., Terminalia ferdinandiana Exell, Eucalyptus species, Syzygium species, Backhousia citriodora F.Muell., Petalostigma species, Acacia species, Melaleuca alternifolia (Maiden & Betche) Cheel, Eremophila species, Prostanthera rotundifolia R.Br., Scaevola spinescens R. Br. and Pittosporum angustifolium Lodd. The majority of studies found polar compounds such as caffeic acid, coumaric acid, chlorogenic acid, quercetin, anthocyanins, hesperidin, kaempferol, catechin, ellagic acid and saponins to be the active components responsible for the therapeutic effects. Additionally, mid to non-polar volatile organic compounds such as meroterpenes (serrulatanes and nerol cinnamates), monoterpenes (1,8-cineole and myodesert-1-ene), sesquiterpenes, diterpenes and triterpenes, that are known only in Australian plants, have also shown therapeutic properties related to traditional medicine. Conclusion Australian plants express a diverse range of previously undescribed metabolites that have not been given full in vitro assessment for human health potential. This review has included a limited number of plant species of ethnomedicinal significance; hundreds of plants remain in need of exploration and detailed study. Future more elaborate studies are therefore required to screen out and purify lead bioactive compounds against numerous other disease types. This will not only improve our knowledge on the phytochemistry of Australian native flora, but also provide a platform to understand their health-promoting and bioactive effects for pharmaceutical interventions, nutraceuticals, cosmetics, and as functional foods. Finally, plant-derived natural compounds (phytochemicals), as well as plant-based traditional remedies, are significant sources for latent and novel drugs against diseases. Extensive investigation of native medicinal plants may well hold the key to novel drug discoveries.

Ethnopharmacological relevance Dynameron is a Byzantine medical compendium, divided into 24 sections, the “Elements”, containing 2667 recipes, most of which inherited by previous physicians of the classic ancient Greek and Hellenistic, and imperial Roman periods. Aim of the study In continuation to our previous study concerning the first and largest chapter of the “Element Alpha” of Nikolaos Myrepsos׳ Dynameron (Valiakos et al., 2015), this paper focuses on the plants quoted in the recipes of the eight following chapters entitled “About Salts”, “About Honeypacks” and “About Spreads”, all belonging to the same “Element Alpha”; “About Antitussives” and “About Suppositories” belonging to the “Element Beta”; “About women's Cathartics” belonging to the “Element Gamma”; “About Drossaton” and “About Diachrisma”, both belonging to the “Element Delta”. Materials and methods Our main primary source material was the codex kept in the National Library of France (in Paris) under the number grec. 2243, which is the older and larger codex of Dynameron (Valiakos et al., 2015). Results The present study led us to the interpretation of 277 plants under different names, among which we recognized 57 medicinal plants listed by the European Medicines Agency, one of them with negative monograph (i.e. Chelidonium majus ). In addition, there are identified taxa related to those quoted by EMA as herbal medicines. The plants appearing in the examined Elements belong to various families of which the most frequent are: Apiaceae 10.11%; Lamiaceae 7.22%; Asteraceae 6.86%; Rosaceae 6.5% and Fabaceae 6.14%. Conclusions A total of 277 species have been catalogued, most of which are referred in our previous publication (Valiakos et al., 2015). Among them, 56 plants still play a very important role in medical practice, as they are used as traditional herbal medicines ( www.ema.eu ). This evidence is a proof that the use of medicinal plants remains valuable from the ancient times until today. The recipes, in contrast to older medical compendia, contain precise measurements of ingredients and dosages for every drug, which seem to reflect empirical logic.

Ethnopharmacological relevance The plants of the genus Peganum have a long history as a Chinese traditional medicine for the treatment of cough, hypertension, diabetes, asthma, jaundice, colic, lumbago, and many other human ailments. Additionally, the plants can be used as an amulet against evil-eye, dye and so on, which have become increasingly popular in Asia, Iran, Northwest India, and North Africa. Aim of the review The present paper reviewed the ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, analytical methods, biological activities, metabolism, pharmacokinetics, toxicology, and drug interaction of the genus Peganum in order to assess the ethnopharmacological use and to explore therapeutic potentials and future opportunities for research. Materials and methods Information on studies of the genus Peganum was gathered via the Internet (using Google Scholar, Baidu Scholar, Elsevier, ACS, Pudmed, Web of Science, CNKI and EMBASE) and libraries. Additionally, information was also obtained from some local books, PhD and MS’s dissertations. Results The genus Peganum has played an important role in traditional Chinese medicine. The main bioactive metabolites of the genus include alkaloids, flavonoids, volatile oils, etc. Scientific studies on extracts and formulations revealed a wide range of pharmacological activities, such as cholinesterase and monoamine oxidase inhibitory activities, antitumor, anti-hypertension, anticoagulant, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, insecticidal, antiparasidal, anti-leishmaniasis, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory. Conclusions Based on this review, there is some evidence for extracts' pharmacological effects on Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, cancer, diabetes, hypertension. Some indications from ethnomedicine have been confirmed by pharmacological effects, such as the cholinesterase, monoamine oxidase and DNA topoisomerase inhibitory activities, hypoglycemic and vasodilation effects of this genus. The available literature showed that most of the activities of the genus Peganum can be attributed to the active alkaloids. Data regarding many aspects of the genus such as mechanisms of actions, metabolism, pharmacokinetics, toxicology, potential drug interactions with standard-of-care medications is still limited which call for additional studies particularly in humans. Further assessments and clinical trials should be performed before it can be integrated into medicinal practices.

27 p., tablas, gráficos, ilustraciones -- El artículo tiene 2 apéndices comprimidos en un archivo WinRAR. -- Postprint del artículo publicado en Journal of Ethnopharmacology. Versión revisada y corregida. -- Este es un artículo distribuido bajo los términos de la licencia Creative Commons Reconocimiento-NoComercial-SinObraDerivada 3.0 España (CC BY-NC-ND 3.0 ES), Ethnopharmacological relevance: Ethnobotany takes into account past uses to be projected into the present and future. Most current ethnobotanical research is focused, especially in industrialised countries, on obtaining information of plant uses from elderly people. Historical ethnobotany is less cultivated, although papers have demonstrated its interest. Particularly poor, but potentially very relevant, is the attention paid to historical herbaria as a source of data on useful plants., Aims of the study: Bearing this in mind, we studied the herbarium of the Catalan pharmacist and naturalist Francesc Bolòs (1773–1844), which contains information on medicinal uses and folk names, with the aim of establishing a catalogue of plants and uses and tracing them through old and contemporary literature., Methodology: The ca. 6000 plant specimens of this herbarium were investigated to assess those including plant uses and names. These taxa have been thoroughly revised. The data have been tabulated, their biogeographic profile, possible endemic or threatened status, or invasive behaviour have been assessed, and the content regarding medicinal uses, as well as folk names, has been studied. The medicinal terms used have been interpreted as per current days’ medicine. The popular names and uses have been compared with those appearing in a certain number of works published from 11th to 20th centuries in the territories covered by the herbarium and with all the data collected in 20th and 21st centuries in an extensive database on Catalan ethnobotany., Results: A total of 385 plant specimens (381 taxa) have been detected bearing medicinal use and folk names information. We collected data on 1107 reports of plant medicinal properties (in Latin), 32 indications of toxicity, nine reports of food use, and 123, 302 and 318 popular plant names in Catalan, Spanish and French, respectively. The most quoted systems are digestive, skin and subcutaneous tissue (plus traumatic troubles) and genitourinary. Relatively high degrees of coincidence of plant names and uses in the herbarium and the literature comparison set have been found. Of the taxa contained in this medicinal herbarium, 294 were native to the Iberian Peninsula, and 86 were alien. Neither endemic nor threatened taxa have been detected, whereas a considerable portion of the alien taxa shows invasive behaviour at present., Conclusions: Our analyses indicate a certain degree of consistency between the medicinal uses of plants recorded in this 18th and 19th century herbarium and the records found in the literature and in recent ethnobotanical datasets, accounting for the robustness of pharmaceutical ethnobotanical knowledge in the area considered. Data appearing on the specimen labels are numerous, pointing out the herbarium as a relevant source of ethnopharmacological information. Special attention should be paid to some original uses contained in the herbarium's labels for further investigation on plant properties and drug design., This research was supported by projects 2014SGR00514 from the Generalitat de Catalunya (Catalan government) and CSO2014-59704-P from the Spanish government.

Ethnopharmacological relevance Magnoliae Officinalis Cortex (the dried bark of Magnolia officinalis), a widely used traditional Chinese medicine, is also known as ‘Houpo’ (Chinese: 厚朴). Magnoliae Officinalis Cortex has a wide range of pharmacological effects and has been used to treat conditions such as abdominal distention, vomiting, diarrhea, food accumulation, Qi stagnation, constipation, phlegm and fluid retention and cough resulting from asthma. Aims of the review The present paper reviews advances in research relating to the botany, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of Magnoliae Officinalis Cortex. Prospects for future investigation and application of this herb are also discussed. Materials and methods Information on Magnoliae Officinalis Cortex was obtained from published materials, including ancient and modern books; PhD and MSc dissertations; monographs on medicinal plants; the pharmacopoeia of different countries and electronic databases, such as SCI finder, PubMed, Web of Science, ACS, Science Direct, Wiley, Springer, Taylor, AGRIS, Europe PMC, EBSCO host, CNKI, WanFang DATA, J-STAGE and Google Scholar. Results More than 200 chemical compounds have been isolated from Magnoliae Officinalis Cortex, including lignans, phenylethanoid glycosides, phenolic glycosides, alkaloids, steroids and essential oils. The plant has been reported to have pharmacological effects on the digestive system, nervous system and cardiovascular and cerebrovascular systems, as well as antibacterial, anti-tumour, analgesic, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative effects. Conclusions Magnoliae Officinalis Cortex is an essential traditional Chinese medicine with pharmacological activities that mainly affect the digestive system, nervous system and cardiovascular and cerebrovascular systems. This review summarises its botany, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology. These information suggest that we should focus on the development of new drugs related to Magnoliae Officinalis Cortex, including specific constituents, so that Magnoliae Officinalis Cortex can exert greater therapeutic potential. Meanwhile, it is important to pay attention to the rational use of Magnolia resources, avoiding over-harvesting which could lead to lack of resources. We should also pursue research on Magnolia substitutes and develop resources such as Magnoliae Officinalis Flos and Magnolia Leaf.

Ethnopharmacological relevance Sophora japonica (Fabaceae), also known as Huai (Chinese: 槐), is a medium-sized deciduous tree commonly found in China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and other countries. The use of this plant has been recorded in classical medicinal treatises of ancient China, and it is currently recorded in both the Chinese Pharmacopoeia and European Pharmacopoeia. The flower buds and fruits of S. japonica , also known as Flos Sophorae Immaturus and Fructus Sophorae in China, are most commonly used in Asia (especially in China) to treat hemorrhoids, hematochezia, hematuria, hematemesis, hemorrhinia, uterine or intestinal hemorrhage, arteriosclerosis, headache, hypertension, dysentery, dizziness, and pyoderma. To discuss feasible trends for further research on S. japonica , this review highlights the botany, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, biological activities, and toxicology of S. japonica based on studies published in the last six decades. Materials and methods Information on the S. japonica was collected from major scientific databases (SciFinder, PubMed, Elsevier, SpringerLink, Web of Science, Google Scholar, Medline Plus, China Knowledge Resource Integrated (CNKI), and “ Da Yi Yi Xue Sou Suo ( http://www.dayi100.com/login.jsp )” for publications between 1957 and 2015 on S. japonica . Information was also obtained from local classic herbal literature, government reports, conference papers, as well as PhD and MSc dissertations. Results Approximately 153 chemical compounds, including flavonoids, isoflavonoids, triterpenes, alkaloids, polysaccharides, amino acids, and other compounds, have been isolated from the leaves, branches, flowers, buds, pericarps, and/or fruits of S. japonica . Among these compounds, several flavonoids and isoflavonoids comprise the active constituents of S. japonica , which exhibit a wide range of biological activities in vitro and in vivo such as anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antiviral, anti-osteoporotic, antioxidant, radical scavenging, antihyperglycemic, antiobesity, antitumor, and hemostatic effects. Furthermore, flavonoids and isoflavonoids can be used as quality control markers for quality identification and evaluation of medicinal materials and their preparations. Information on evaluating the safety of S. japonica is very limited, so further study is required. To enable safer, more effective, and controllable therapeutic preparations, more in-depth information is urgently needed on the quality control, toxicology data, and clinical value of crude extract and active compounds of S. japonica . Conclusions S. japonica has long been used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) due to its wide range of biological activities, and is administered orally. Phytochemical and pharmacological studies of S. japonica have increased in the past few years, and the extract and active components of this plant can be used to develop new drugs based on their traditional application as well as their biological activities. Therefore, this review on the ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, biological activities, and toxicity of S. japonica offers promising data for further studies as well as the commercial exploitation of this traditional medicine.

Taste (rasa) is traditionally valued in Ayurveda as an important ethnopharmacological category, and reported to correlate with certain therapeutic activities (karman). The present paper endeavors to provide for the first time a type of mapping of ayurvedic ethnopharmacological space by the integration of medicinal plant taste-activity relationship (TA) data, originating from several traditional sources.The present TA database included 183 ayurvedic medicinal plants, with their traditional description of taste and ethnophamacological actions (EPA). 111 plants had a unique taste, and 72 plants a combination of several tastes, consisting of one principal taste, and other 2-4 secondary tastes. 121 ethnopharmacological actions were considered. Potential global or individual associations between rasa and karman were statistically analyzed.We found a statistically significant global correspondence between the predominant plant taste and the ethnopharmacological activities (Chi-square test, p0.05), and the following individual associations (Fisher exact test, p0.05, positive association if lnOR0, negative association if lnOR0): bitter- 11 positive associations (lnOR 0.940 to 3.544) and 8 negative associations (lnOR -0.997 to -3.101), sweet- 14 positive associations (lnOR 0.839 to 3.132) and 20 negative associations (lnOR -0.962 to -3.270), pungent- 23 positive associations (lnOR 0.835 to 4.126) and 11 negative associations (lnOR -1.255 to -3.147), astringent- 7 positive associations (lnOR 1.099 to 3.813) and 7 negative associations (lnOR -1.076 to -2.631), sour- 7 positive associations (lnOR 1.128 to 4.664) and 1 negative association (lnOR -2.244). Among the 109 statistically significant associations, 24 were not traditionally mentioned, and only 4 were in opposition with the traditional ayurvedic sources.The present study confirms the traditional relationship rasa-karman and demonstrates that statistical models can be used to predict EPAs of medicinal plants depending on their taste. Integration of the ayurvedic concept of taste into ethnopharmacological research might reveal new facets of plant therapeutic potentials and provide a framework for developing a probabilistic approach to drug discovery that can be exploited to increase bioprospecting research efficacy.

Ethnopharmacological relevance The genus Hedyosmum (family: Chloranthaceae) represents an interesting source of natural active compounds, and the 45 species of this genus are widespread in Central and South America and to a lesser extent Southeast Asia (southern China and western Malaysia). Several species are traditionally used in folk medicine. However, the data made available in recent years have not been organized and compared. Aim of this review The present study is a critical assessment of the state-of-the-art concerning the traditional uses, the phytochemistry and the pharmacology of species belonging to the genus Hedyosmum to suggest further research strategies and to facilitate the exploitation of the therapeutic potential of Hedyosmum species for the treatment of human disorders. Materials and methods The present review consists of a systematic overview of scientific literature concerning the genus Hedyosmum published between 1965 and 2018. Moreover, an older text, dated from 1843, concerning the traditional uses of H. bonplandianum Kunth has also been considered. Several databases (Francis & Taylor, Google Scholar, PubMed, SciELO, SciFinder, Springer, Wiley, and The Plant List Database) have been used to perform this work. Results Sixteen species of the genus Hedyosmum have been mentioned as traditional remedies, and a large number of ethnomedicinal uses, including for the treatment of pain, depression, migraine, stomach-ache and ovary diseases, have been reported. Five species have been used as flavouring agents, tea substitutes or foods. Sesterterpenes, sesquiterpene lactones, monoterpenes, hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives, flavonoids, and neolignans have been reported as the most important compounds in these species. Studies concerning their biological activities have shown that members of the Hedyosmum genus possesses promising biological properties, such as analgesic, antinociceptive, antidepressant, anxiolytic, sedative, and hypnotic effects. Preliminary studies concerning the antibacterial, antioxidant, antiplasmodial, and antifungal activities of these plants as well as their cytotoxic activities against different tumour cell lines have been reported. Some active compounds from the Hedyosmum genus have been used as starting points for the innovative and bioinspired development of synthetic molecules. A critical assessment of these papers has been performed, and some conceptual and methodological problems have been identified regarding the materials and methods and the experimental design used in these studies, including a lack of ethnopharmacological research. Conclusions The present review partially confirms the basis for some of the traditional uses of Hedyosmum species (mainly H. brasiliense) through preclinical studies that demonstrated their antinociceptive and neuroprotective effects. Due to promising preliminary results, further studies should be conducted on 13-hydroxy-8,9-dehydroshizukanolide and podoandin. Moreover, several essential oils (EOs) from this genus have been preliminarily investigated, and the cytotoxic and antibacterial activities of H. brasiliense and H. sprucei EOs certainly deserve further investigation. From the promising findings of the present analysis, we can affirm that this genus deserves further research from ethnopharmacological and toxicological perspectives.

Ethnopharmacological relevance The genus Psiadia Jacq. ex. Willd. belongs to the Asteraceae family and includes more than 60 species. This genus grows in tropical and subtropical regions, being especially well represented in Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands (La Reunion, Mauritius and Rodrigues). Several Psiadia species have been used traditionally for their medicinal properties in Africa and the Mascarene Islands. Based on traditional knowledge, various phytochemical and pharmacological studies have been conducted. However there are no recent papers that provide an overview of the medicinal potential of Psiadia species. Therefore, the aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive summary of the botany, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Psiadia and to highlight the gaps in our knowledge for future research opportunities. Materials and methods The available information on traditional uses, phytochemistry and biological activities of the genus Psiadia was collected from scientific databases through a search using the keyword ‘Psiadia’ in ‘Google Scholar’, ‘Pubmed’, ‘Sciencedirect’, ‘SpringerLink’, ‘Web of Science’, ‘Wiley’ and ‘Scifinder’. Additionally, published books and unpublished Ph.D. and MSc. dissertations were consulted for botanical information and chemical composition. Results Historically, species of the genus Psiadia have been used to treat a wide range of ailments including abdominal pains, colds, fevers, bronchitis, asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, skin infections and liver disorders among others. Phytochemical works led to the isolation of flavonoids, phenylpropanoids, coumarins and terpenoids. Furthermore, phytochemical compositions of the essential oils of some species have been evaluated. Crude extracts, essential oils and isolated molecules showed in vitro pharmacological activities, such as antimicrobial, anti-viral, anti-inflammatory, antiplasmodial and antileishmanial activities. Crude extracts of Psiadia dentata and Psiadia arguta have specifically been found to be potentially useful for inhibition of growth of Plasmodium falciparum. However, pharmacological data on this particular genus is quite limited. Further research is necessary to determine the active compounds and the underlying mechanisms.

Ethnopharmacological relevance Sokoto is known for its diverse traditional medicinal wealth and international market of traditional medicines in Africa. However, information of the folk knowledge, especially for the treatment of diabetes, is not documented. Aim of the study This survey identified and documented the information on traditional medicinal plants used by Hausa–Fulani community of Sokoto for the treatment of diabetes. Materials and method Demographic data and information about the medicinal plants were collected via administration of semi-structured oral questionnaires. Willing herbal medical practitioners/traditional healers were interviewed. The medicinal plants mentioned by herbalists were collected and authenticated by a taxonomist and the voucher specimens were preserved. Results Fifty one informants across the state divulged information on traditional medicinal plants and practices used in diabetes and revealed 54 species, belonging to 33 families, with Cassia sieberiana being cited the most (19 times) and ranked first (39%). Azadirachta indica , Ficus exasperata and Schwenckia americana ranked second (15%), each cited 8 times. Conclusion The survey documented the rich wealth of knowledge and usage of plants for the treatment of diabetes in Sokoto. The paper will not only serve as a source of information but will also help to make the knowledge accessible for further drug screening and development, and at the same time underlines the need for biodiversity conservation of this traditional wealth.

Ethnopharmacological relevance During the last few decades there has been an increasing interest in the study of medicinal plants with their traditional use and related pharmacological research all over the World. This paper enumerated folk medicinal plants used by Malayali tribal people in an unexplored and biodiversity rich region of Eastern Ghats in southern India. Aim of study The aim of this study is to collect and identify the plants used in medicinal therapy by the local people and professional traditional healers with quantitative analysis. Materials and methods An ethnobotanical survey was carried out during January to December 2014 among the Malayali tribal people in four villages of Palamalai region in Eastern Ghats, India. The information was obtained through open and semi-structured face-to-face interviews with the local knowledgeable people and professional traditional healers. The statistical analysis, use value, family use value, informants’ consensus factor, fidelity level, frequency of citation, relative frequency citation and informants’ agreements ratio were calculated for the quantitative study of ethnomedicinal data. Results A total of 118 plant species belonging to 95 genera and 55 families dominated by the families like Leguminosae, Asteraceae and Lamiaceae were enumerated with detailed information on parts used, method of preparation, mode of administration and ailments treated. Leaves were mostly used plant part and predominantly used herbal preparations were decoction and paste. Moringa oleifera Lam. was reported by all the interviewed informants and gives the highest UV of 3.9 with 78 use reports due to its diverse medicinal uses. Conclusion The present study demonstrated the need for importance of documenting the traditional knowledge of forest dwelling people. As a result of the study, Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet., Andrographis echioides (L.f.) Nees., Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst., Canarium strictum Roxb., Centella asiatica (L.) Urban., Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. and Tribulus terrestris (L.) were recommended for further ethnopharmacological studies since these plants were recorded with high UV, IAR, RFC and FL values.

Ethnopharmacological relevance Seven species from the genus Dictamnus are distributed throughout Europe and North Asia and only two species grow in China. One is Dictamnus dasycarpus Turcz., which could be found in many areas of China and has been recorded in Chinese Pharmacopoeia. The other is Dictamnus angustifolius G. Don ex Sweet, which is only present in Xinjiang province and has been used as an alternative for Dictamnus dasycarpus in the local for the treatment of rheumatism, bleeding, itching, jaundice, chronic hepatitis and skin diseases. The present paper reviewed the traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of the genus Dictamnus. Materials and methods Information on the Dictamnus species was collected from classic books about Chinese herbal medicine and globally accepted scientific databases including PubMed, Elsevier, ASC, Scopus, Google Scholar, Web of Science, CNKI and others. Results About 170 chemical compounds, which include quinoline alkaloids, limonoids, sesquiterpenes, coumarins, flavonoids and steroids, have been isolated from the genus Dictamnus. The characteristic and active constituents of Dictamnus species are considered to be quinoline alkaloids and limonoids, which exhibited a broad spectrum of biological activities such as anti-cancer, anti-inflammation, anti-microbe, anti-platelet-aggregation, vascular-relaxation, anti-insect, anti-HIV, anti-allergy and neuroprotection. Moreover, quinoline alkaloids and limonoids could be used as quality control markers to distinguish different species from the genus Dictamnus. However, there were also some reports on the toxic hepatitis and phototoxic effect of Dictamnus species, and the related research needs to be further studied. Conclusion In this review, we summarized the chemical constituents, pharmacology, quality control and toxicology of the species from genus Dictamnus. Phytochemical investigations indicated that quinoline alkaloids and limonoids were the major bioactive components with potential cytotoxic, neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-platelet-aggregation and vascular relaxing activities. These two kinds of compounds have attracted great interests in the past few years and may have great potential to be new drug lead compounds.

Ethnopharmacological relevance Buruli ulcer (BU) is the third most common mycobacterial infection in the world, after tuberculosis and leprosy and has recently been recognized as an important emerging disease. This disease is common in West Africa where more than 99% of the burden is felt and where most affected people live in remote areas with traditional medicine as primary or only option. Reports indicate that the ethnopharmacological control approach of the disease in such settings has shown promise. However, no or very few compilations of traditional knowledge in using medicinal plants to treat BU have been attempted so far. This review aimed to record medicinal plants used traditionally against BU in three countries in West Africa: Ivory Coast, Ghana and Benin and for which ethnopharmacological knowledge supported by pharmacological investigations has been reported. The information recorded in this review will support further pharmacological research to develop appropriate drugs for a better BU control. Material and methods A systematic review of the literature on ethnobotanical use and anti-BU activity of plants reported for BU treatment was performed. The approach consisted to search several resources, including Technical Reports, Books, Theses, Conference proceedings, web-based scientific databases such as publications on PubMed, Science direct, Springer, ACS, Scielo, PROTA, Google and Google scholar reporting ethnobotanical surveys and screening of natural products against Mycobacterium ulcerans. This study was limited to papers and documents published either in English or French reporting ethnopharmacological knowledge in BU treatment or pharmacological potency in vitro. This review covered the available literature up to December 2014. Results The majority of reports originated from the three most affected West African countries (Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana and Benin). Though, 98 plant species belonging to 48 families have been identified as having anti-BU use, many have received no or little attention. Most of the pharmacological studies were performed only on 54 species. To a lesser extent, ethnopharmacological knowledge was validated in vitro for only 13 species. Of those, seven species including Ricinus comminus, Cyperus cyperoides (cited as Mariscus alternifolius), Nicotiana tabacum, Mangifera indica, Solanum rugosum, Carica papaya, and Moringa oleifera demonstrated efficacy in hospitalised BU patients. Four isolated and characterized compounds were reported to have moderate bioactivity in vitro against M. ulcerans. Conclusions This review compiles for the first time ethnopharmacologically useful plants against BU. The phamacological potential of 13 of them has been demonstrated in vitro and support BU evidence-based traditional medicines. In addition, 7 species showed activity in BU patients and have emerged as a promising source of the traditional medicine for treatment of BU. Yet, further safety and efficacy study should be initiated prior any approval as alternative therapy. Overall, a huge gap in knowledge appeared, suggesting further well-planned and detailed investigations of the in vitro, in vivo, and safety properties of the claimed anti-BU plants. Therefore, plants with medicinal potential should be scrutinized for biologically active compounds, using bioassay-guided fractionation approach to provide new insights to find novel therapeutics for BU control.

In Valencia Region (Spain), some wild and cultivated sages are used for medicinal purposes. Among them, Salvia officinalis subsp. lavandulifolia (SL) is widely employed and known for production of Spanish sage oil and herbal products. Nevertheless, it shares the market with S. blancoana subsp. mariolensis (SB) and, to a lesser extent, with their hybrid S. x hegelmaieri (SH). The knowledge on these two species is far low and confusion between them is possible. The aim of the present paper is to improve the ethnopharmacological, morphological and chemical knowledge of these sages, and to contribute to setting up quality specifications for improving identification and distinction from other Salvia species, such as, S. officinalis subsp. officinalis, S. x auriculata and S. microphylla var. microphylla. Samples were collected in Valencia Region and surrounding mountain areas during the ethnopharmacological field work. Twenty-nine medicinal uses were reported for SL, 13 of them being also recorded for SB. Of particular interest is a homemade liquor, used as digestive and known as “salvieta,” which is mainly prepared with SB. The macro- and microscopic characters are insufficient for identification of cut, crushed or powdered material. The study of the essential oil and a HPTLC (High Performance Thin Layer Chromatography) fingerprint of their extracts could help to distinguish SB from the other sages. The essential oil from dried aerial parts of SB (content: 1.8–4.5%) was characterized by GC-FID (Gas Chromatography with Flame Ionization Detector) and GC-MS (Gas Chromatography coupled to Mass Spectrometry) showing a composition close to that currently accepted for Spanish sage essential oil in the European Pharmacopoeia, ISO (International Standard Organization) and UNE (Una Norma Española) standards, with 1,8-cineole (13.7–45.7%) and camphor (12.1–28.6%) as major constituents. HPTLC methods, based on the analysis of hydroalcoholic and dichloromethane extracts, allowed to distinguish SB from other Salvia taxa currently found in Valencia region, except from its hybrid SH. This interdisciplinary study, that combines popular knowledge with botany and chemistry, allows to identify the raw herbal material from SB and to distinguish it from other Salvia species, ensuring a proper commercialization as herbal teas or for the preparation of spirits. This work had the financial support through the Borsa d'Estudi Països Catalans of the Institute for Catalan Studies to VM, and the financial support from an ERASMUS Internship (FsTRASBO48) to EH.

Ethnopharmacological relevance The genus Polygonatum (Asparagaceae) comprises 71 species distributed throughout the temperate Northern Hemisphere. The medicinal plants of Polygonatum have been traditionally used as tonics in China, India, Pakistan, Iran and Japan, and have been demonstrated to be highly effective in clinical practice for treating age-related diseases, diabetes, lung diseases, fatigue, feebleness and indigestion. Aim of the review This paper aims to provide the links among traditional uses, chemical constituents, pharmacological effects and toxicity to support their therapeutic potential and uncover opportunities for future research. Materials and methods The relevant information on the genus Polygonatum was gathered from scientific databases (Google Scholar, Web of Science, SciFinder, ScienceDirect, ACS Publications, PubMed, Wiley Online Library, CNKI). Information was also obtained from online databases, books, Ph.D. dissertations and M.Sc. theses. The literature cited in this review dates from 1917 to June 2017. Results At least 37 species and 1 variety of Polygonatum plants have been used as traditional medicine and functional food. The major chemical constituents of Polygonatum plants are steroidal saponins, triterpenoid saponins, homoisoflavanones, polysaccharides and lectins. A putative biosynthetic pathway of steroidal saponins and triterpenoid saponins has been established based on the compounds isolated from Polygonatum plants. The crude extracts and certain pure compounds from Polygonatum plants have shown a wide range of pharmacological effects such as anti-aging, anti-diabetic, anti-fatigue, and anticancer effects. The rhizomes of Polygonatum plants have a low degree of toxicity after processing. Conclusions Based on this review, some traditional uses of Polygonatum species have been confirmed by pharmacological studies, such as its anti-osteoporosis, neuroprotective, immunomodulatory, anti-diabetic and anti-fatigue effects. Most of the pharmacological effects of this genus can be attributed to its polysaccharides, saponins and lectins. However, to clarify the chemical differences that lead to the different traditional uses between “Huangjing” (derived from P. sibiricum, P. kingianum, P. cyrtonema) and “Yuzhu” (derived from P. odoratum), a systematic comparison of the small molecule compositions and polysaccharides of these four species is needed. In addition to these four species, other locally used medicinal Polygonatum species should be the subject of research, and the chemical and pharmacological relationships of these species should be investigated to expand the medicinal resources and standardize the use of Polygonatum species.

Background Cnidoscolus is a genus belonging to the Euphorbiaceae family, distributed in South American countries, such as Mexico and Brazil, which includes several species widely used in folk medicine. However, the genus is not sufficiently exploited from a chemical and pharmacological point of view. Hypothesis/purpose This paper aims to present a systematic review of known pharmacological and chemical aspects from Cnidoscolus, an important genus for South America research groups on medicinal plants. In this article, we highlight the importance of Cnidoscolus species in the search for new bioactive molecules. Study design A systematic review was conducted in order to collect chemical and pharmacological information on species of this genus in the last 25 years. Methods Literature search was performed through specialized databases (PUBMED, LILACS, SCIELO, Science Direct and Web of Science) using different combinations of the following keywords: Cnidoscolus, phytochemistry, pharmacological activity. For the selection of the manuscripts, two independent investigators (RGOJ and CAAF) first selected the articles according to the title, then to the abstract and finally through an analysis of the full-text publication. All selected manuscripts were analyzed for year of publication, country where the research was performed, reported plant species, isolated chemical compounds and evaluated biological activities. Results Most of the studies involving Cnidoscolus were conducted by research groups located in Brazil, Nigeria and Mexico. Regarding the annual evolution of the publications, a larger number of articles published in 2014 were observed. Flavonoids, triterpenes and diterpenes represent the main classes of secondary metabolites that have been isolated from Cnidoscolus. In terms of the pharmacological investigations, C. aconitifolius, C. chayamansa and C. quercifolius are considered the most studied species, with different pharmacological activities. Conclusion All findings indicate that Cnidoscolus is an important genus of the Euphorbiaceae family. However, considering its chemical and pharmacological importance, the studies developed with Cnidoscolus species are still limited, representing an opportunity to investigate new bioactive molecules.

Ethnopharmacological relevance This paper provides significant ethnobotanical information on medicinal plants in the Gecitli Township in the Eastern Anatolia Region. Recording such data calls for urgency this is the first ethnobotanical study in which statistical calculations about plants are carried out by means of the FIC method in Eastern (Hakkari) part of Turkey. Aim of the study This study aims to identify the wild plants collected for medicinal purposes by locals of Gecitli which is located in the Eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey, and to identify the uses and local names of these wild plants. Materials and methods A field study had been carried out for a period of approximately 2 years (2008–2010). During this period, 70 plants taxa and one mushroom were collected. Demographic characteristics of participants, names of the local plants, their utilized parts and preparation methods were investigated and recorded. The plant taxa were collected within the scope of the study; and herbarium materials were prepared. In addition, the relative significance value of the taxa was determined, and informant consensus factor (FIC) was calculated for the medicinal plants included in the study. Results We have found out in the literature review of the plants included in our study that 70 plant taxa and one mushroom are already used for medicinal purposes while 11 plants are not available among the records in the literature. The most common families are Asteraceae, Apiaceae, Lamiaceae, Rosaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, and Malvaceae. We include in our study and report for the first time the medicinal uses of Alchemilla hessii Rothm., Cirsium pubigerum (Desf.) DC. var. spinosum Pet., Diplotaenia cachrydifolia Boiss., Euphorbia macrocarpa Boiss. & Buhse, Galium consanguineum Boiss., Inula helenium L. subsp. vanensis Grierson, Johrenia dichotoma DC. subsp. sintenisii Bornm., Pelargonium quercetorum Agnew, Rosa heckeliana Tratt. subsp. vanheurckiana (Crĕp.) O. Nilsson, Salix aegyptiaca L., Taraxacum montanum (C.A. Mey.) DC. Names of local plants in Turkey vary especially due to vernaculars. The plants that the locals of Gecitli use are called with the same or different local names in various parts of Anatolia. Conclusion We found out that locals living in the research area use for therapeutic purpose 70 plants taxa and one mushroom which belong to 28 families. Turkish citizens with different ethnic backgrounds took the questionnaire. These people use these wild plants in treatment of several diseases. Comparison of the data obtained in this study with the experimental data obtained in the previous laboratory studies on the wild plants which grow in Gecitli proved ethnobotanical usages to a great extent. Literature review indicated that the therapeutic plants that grow in Gecitli are used in different parts of the world for the treatment of similar diseases.

Ethnopharmacological relevance In 1962 ethnopharmacologists, Hofmann and Wasson, undertook an expedition to Oaxaca, Mexico. These two researchers were the first scientists to collect a flowering specimen of Salvia divinorum allowing the identification of this species. While the species' traditional use is confined to a very small region of Mexico, since Hofmann and Wasson's expedition 50 years ago, Salvia divinorum has become globally recognized for its main active constituent, the diterpene salvinorin A, which has a unique effect on human physiology. Salvinorin A is a kappa-opioid agonist and the first reported psychoactive diterpene. Methods This review concentrates on the investigation of Salvia divinorum over the last 50 years including ethnobotany, ethnopharmacology, taxonomy, systematics, genetics, chemistry and pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic research. For the purpose of this review, online search engines were used to find relevant research. Searches were conducted between October 2011 and September 2013 using the search term “ Salvia divinorum ”. Papers were excluded if they described synthetic chemical synthesis of salvinorin A or analogues. Results Ethnobotanically there is a comprehensive body of research describing the traditional Mazatec use of the plant, however, the modern ethnobotanical use of this plant is not well documented. There are a limited number of botanical investigations into this plant and there are still several aspects of the botany of Salvia divinorum which need further investigation. One study has investigated the phylogenetic relationship of Salvia divinorum to other species in the genus. To date the main focus of chemistry research on Salvia divinorum has been salvinorin A, the main active compound in Salvia divinorum , and other related diterpenoids. Finally, the effects of salvinorin A, a KOR agonist, have primarily been investigated using animal models. Conclusions As Salvia divinorum use increases worldwide, the emerging cultural use patterns will warrant more research. More botanical information is also needed to better understand this species, including germination, pollination vector and a better understanding of the endemic environment of Salvia divinorum . As well there is a gap in the genetic knowledge of this species and very little is known about its intra-species genetics. The terpenes in Salvia divinorum are very well documented, however, other classes of constituents in this species warrant further investigation and identification. To date, the majority of the pharmacology research on Salvia divinorum has focused on the effects of salvinorin A using animal models. Published human studies have not reported any harmful effects when salvinorin A is administered within the dose range of 0.375–21 µg/kg but what are the implications when applied to a larger population? More data on the toxicology and safety of Salvia divinorum are needed before larger scale clinical trials of the potential therapeutic effects of Salvia divinorum and salvinorin A are undertaken.

Ethnopharmacological relevance In this paper we present a comprehensive ethnomedicinal study conducted in Mondulkiri province. Traditional knowledge about natural medicine (plants, animals, mushrooms) was investigated in Cambodia’s largest indigenous community: the Bunong people. The survey aims to document the medicinal plant use of this ethnic, by focusing on the eleven most frequent diseases encountered in the area, in order to highlight species that could be recommended in public health programs. Materials and methods During the years 2013 and 2014, 202 villagers were interviewed in 28 villages from the five districts in Mondulkiri. Two types of methodology were employed: (1) an ethnobotanical field survey (walk-in-the-wood interviews) and (2) semi-structured household interviews with a special emphasis on the treatment of 11 most common ailments encountered in the area. Medicinal plants and mushrooms were collected and identified together with medicinal animals. The factor informant consensus (FIC) and fidelity level (FL) were calculated. Results Bunong people use a total of 214 plants belonging to 72 families, 1 mushroom and 22 animal species in their traditional healthcare practices in order to treat 51 different ailments. Among the medicinal plants, Fabaceae was the most predominant family; Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King and H.Rob. (Asteraceae), Zingiber montanum (J.Koenig) Link ex A.Dietr. (Zingiberaceae) and Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. (Crassulaceae) were the most cited medicinal plants; and four ailments (cold/fever, diarrhea, postpartum disorders and stomachache) were described as major ailments in the community. The root was the most important part of plants used, and decoction was the most cited method of preparation. During our survey, we also discovered a “new to science” plant species called Ardisia mondulkiriensis Hul and Chassagne, and we recorded for the second time the plant species recently described, Solanum sakhanii Hul. Conclusion Most of the species reported for the treatment of the 11 most frequent ailments have already been proven to be efficient and safe. Furthermore, 10 plant species are reported for the first time as medicinal and some of them are widely used in the community. Further pharmacological and phytochemical investigations should be undergone to assess the pharmaceutical potential of these species. While undergoing considerable changes, Bunong people have maintained extensive traditional medicine knowledge. As this indigenous hill tribe depend mainly on natural remedies for their daily healthcare, environmental preservation is of high importance for the community.

The majority of Kurds inhabit a region that includes adjacent parts of Iran, Iraq, Syria and Turkey. This review shows that the traditional medicine is still used by Kurdish peoples and underlines the medicinal value of a great number of plants used locally. The medicinal uses include the treatment of a variety of diseases, ranging from simple stomach-ache to highly complicate male and female disorders; even sexual weakness and kidney stones are treated by plants. The majority of the plants that are used are for curing gastro-intestinal disorders and inflammation, followed by urinary tract disorders, skin burns, irritations and liver problems. In the last part of this paper, we also report the first results of our ongoing research project on the constituents of some uninvestigated Kurdish medicinal plants. The C-glycosylflavone embinin, the α-methylene acyl derivative 6-tuliposide A, and the iridoids aucubin and ajugol were isolated for the first time from Iris persica, Tulipa systole and Verbascum calvum, respectively. These plants are traditionally used against inflammation, pain, and skin burns.

Made available in DSpace on 2018-11-26T16:22:23Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2016-02-03 Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) Ethnopharmacological relevance: This is the first intercultural report of antimalarial plants in this region. The aim of this study was to document the medicinal plants used against malaria by indigenous people in the Upper Rio Negro region and to review the literature on antimalarial activity and traditional use of the cited species. Materials and methods: Participant observation, semi-structured interviews, and ethnobotanical walks were conducted with 89 informants in five indigenous communities between April 2010 and November 2013 to obtain information on the use of medicinal plants against malaria. We reviewed academic databases for papers published in scientific journals up to January 2014 in order to find works on ethnopharmacology, ethnobotany, and antimalarial activity of the species cited. Results: Forty-six plant species belonging to 24 families are mentioned. Fabaceae (17.4%), Arecaceae (13.0%) and Euphorbiaceae (6.5%) account together for 36.9% of these species. Only seven plant species showed a relatively high consensus. Among the plant parts, barks (34.0%) and roots (28.0%) were the most widely used. Of the 46 species cited, 18 (39.1%) have already been studied for their antimalarial properties according to the literature, and 26 species (56.5%) have no laboratory essays on antimalarial activity. Conclusions: Local traditional knowledge of the use of antimalarials is still widespread in indigenous communities of the Upper Rio Negro, where 46 plants species used against malaria were recorded. Our studies highlight promising new plants for future studies: Glycidendron amazonicum, Heteropsis tenuispadix, Monopteryx uaucu, Phenakospermum guianensis, Pouteria ucuqui, Sagotia brachysepala and notably Aspidosperma schultesii, Ampelozizyphus amazonicus, Euterpe catinga, E. precatoria, Physalis angulata, Cocos nucifera and Swartzia argentea with high-use consensus. Experimental validation of these remedies may help in developing new drugs for malaria. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. Univ Estadual Paulista, Fac Ciencias Agron Botucatu, Dept Hort, Rua Jose Barbosa de Barros 1780, BR-18610307 Botucatu, SP, Brazil Cunuri Indigenous Community, Sao Gabriel Da Cachoeira, Amazonas, Brazil CNRS Guyane USR 3456, 2 Ave Gustave Charlery, Cayenne 97300, French Guiana Herbario EAFM, Inst Educ Ciencia & Tecnol Amazonas IFAM, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil Univ Estadual Paulista, Fac Ciencias Agron Botucatu, Dept Hort, Rua Jose Barbosa de Barros 1780, BR-18610307 Botucatu, SP, Brazil CNPq: 555.669/2009-2 CAPES: 201062/2012-7 FAPESP: 2009/53638-7

Ethnopharmacological relevance This paper provides significant ethnobotanical information on pharmaceutical plant uses in the Middle Navarra (Iberian Peninsula). Collect, analyze and evaluate the ethnobotanical knowledge about medicinal plants in this area with 3622.2 km 2 and 404,634 inhabitants. Materials and methods We performed semi-structured interviews with 276 informants (mean age 72; 46% women, 54% men) in 111 locations, identified the plant reported and analyzed the results, comparing them with those from other territories. Results The informants reported data on 198 medicinal plants belonging to 60 botanical families. This work is focused on human medicinal plant uses, which represent 98% of the pharmaceutical uses (1401 use reports). The species with the highest number of cites are Santolina chamaecyparissus ssp. squarrosa, Jasonia glutinosa and Chamaemelum nobile with a long tradition of use in Navarra. All different plant parts are used; aerial part is exploited more frequently than other plant parts. Most of the listed remedies use a single ingredient, typically soaked in water. The most common mode of administration is oral, while the second most common is topical. Conclusions The main ailments treated are digestive troubles, wounds and dermatological problems, and respiratory affections. Informants reported 80 new or scarcely cited uses for 14 medicinal plants. For 36% of the species (5) we have not found bibliographical references in the scientific literature and 64% (9) have only one to three references.

Aim of the study The present paper documents the uses of plants in traditional herbal medicine for treatment of human and veterinary ailments in four village development committees in the Humla district of western Nepal. It also determines the homogeneity of informant's knowledge on medicinal plants suitable for different ailment categories and the most preferred plant species used to treat each ailment category in the study areas. Materials and methods The ethnobotanical information was collected through semi-structured interviews and key informant discussion. The data were analyzed through informant consensus factor (ICF), fidelity level (FL) and use value (UV). Results We documented 161 plant species belonging to 61 families and 106 genera used for treating 73 human and 7 veterinary ailments. We also documented culinary uses and additional uses for 67 and 33 species of medicinal plant species respectively. Most medicines were prepared in the form of powder and used orally. Roots were most frequently used plant parts. The uses of 93 medicinal plants were not mentioned in any previous studies. Gastro-intestinal ailments have the highest ICF (0.40) whereas opthalmological uses have the lowest (zero) ICF. Mentha spicata and Rumex hastatus has the highest FL (100% each) both being used for gastro-intestinal ailments and Delphinium himalayai has the lowest (47.4%) for veterinary uses. Conclusions ICF values indicated that there was high agreement in the use of plants in gastro-intestinal ailment category among the users. FL or UV values indicated the most preferred plant species used in study areas. These preferred plant species could be prioritized for conservation and subjected to further studies related to chemical screening for their authenticity. Most of the medicinal plants of the region are collected in the wild and are often harvested for trade. Sustainable harvesting methods and domestication of the highly traded species is thus needed in the study areas.

As pesquisas realizadas a partir de recursos genéticos de espécies medicinais nativas somente serão aplicadas se o material genético estiver seguro quanto à sobrevivência e disponibilidade. O objetivo deste artigo foi realizar uma revisão bibliográfica adotando como critério a escolha de artigos publicados em conceituadas revistas nacionais e internacionais, que permitissem melhor entendimento dos aspectos etnobotânicos, ecológicos e químicos de importante planta medicinal e aromática: Siparuna guianensis Aublet. Como tem sido apontada como uma das espécies prioritárias de conservação para a região do cerrado brasileiro, os estudos da propagação devem ser incentivados para que este recurso genético esteja disponível às gerações futuras. Studies with genetic resources of native medicinal species will only be applied if their genetic material is safe regarding survival and availability. The aim of this study was to do a literature review adopting as criterion the choice of papers published in renowned national and international journals to allow better understanding on ethnobotanical, ecological and chemical aspects of an important medicinal and aromatic plant, Siparuna guianensis Aublet. Since the latter has been considered one of the major species for the conservation of Brazilian cerrado, studies on its propagation should be encouraged in order to make this genetic resource available to future generations.

Aim of the study The present paper aimed to document and study the role of traditional herbal drugs in the treatment of human and veterinary ailments by communities residing in the eastern part of Shimoga district of Karnataka in India and to determine the consensus of informant's knowledge on different category of ailments and fidelity level of plant species in treating particular disease. Methodology The ethno-medico-botanical information was collected from herbal healers and knowledgeable elder people residing in 15 randomly selected villages using semi-structured interviews. The data were subjected to informant consensus factor (ICF) and fidelity level (FL) analyses. Results Eighty-five plant species of 41 families used to treat 31 human and 10 veterinary ailments were documented. Those medicinal plants which are effective in the treatment of liver complaints category had high ICF (0.77) and the skin diseases and disorders category attracted low ICF (0.12). Certain medicinal plants like Cyclea peltata , Justicia adhatoda , Memecylon umbellatum , Phyllanthus amarus and Tabernaemontana alternifolia were assigned with high degree of FL (100%) value and certain species like Cassia fistula was assigned with very low FL (25%). Some of the noteworthy medicinal uses of plant species in the study area were not reported for such purposes in the previously published literature on ethnobotany. Conclusion The local communities residing in eastern part of Shimoga district depended on herbal formulations for the treatment of diseases and disorders that affected them and their animals, as well. A high ICF and FL values indicated the possible occurrence of valuable bioactive compounds in certain plants and such of these plants need scientific evaluation for their pharmacological activities.

Ethnopharmacological relevance There are more than 3000 officially documented plants in the Indian subcontinent that hold great medicinal potential. One such under-explored plant is an evergreen tropical tree Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser (Rubiaceae). It is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of the world and has therapeutic potential against many diseases such as diabetes, anaemia, stomatitis, leprosy, cancer and infectious diseases. Neolamarckia cadamba has historical existence in India and it is mentioned in mythical stories. There are several reports on medicinal values of root, bark and leaves of N. cadamba; but the literature on its fruits is scanty. Therefore, the present review aims to provide updated comprehensive information on the phytochemistry and pharmacological properties of different parts of N. cadamba tree with special reference to its fruit, in order to open new perspectives for future food and pharmacological research. Materials and methods A literature search was performed on N. cadamba using ethnobotanical textbooks, published articles in peer-reviewed journals, unpublished materials, government survey reports and scientific databases such as Pubmed, Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct, Google Scholar and other web search engines (Google, Yahoo). The Plant List, International Plant Name Index and Kew Botanical Garden Plant name databases were used to validate the scientific names. Results and discussion Neolamarckia cadamba is one of the economically important trees, which is being exploited for paper, pulp and wood industry. In folk medicine, various parts of N. cadamba are used in the treatment of various ailments such as fever, uterine complaints, blood diseases, skin diseases, tumour, anaemia, eye inflammation and diarrhoea. Other reported uses of N. cadamba include antihepatotoxic, antimalarial, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, diuretic and laxative. Various phytochemicals such as cadambine and its derivatives (dihydrocadambine and isodihydrocadambine) and indole alkaloids (Neolamarckines) were isolated from the leaves; whereas the presence of quinovic acid derivatives have been reported in the bark of N. cadamba. Conclusion The present review compiles information on an ethnopharmacologically useful plant N. cadamba. Bioactive compounds responsible for its various medicinal properties and their effects at the molecular level need to be investigated in more detail. Furthermore, the detailed study of toxicity and pharmacological properties of extracts as well as molecules in N. cadamba is required to confirm the ethnomedicinal claims of N. cadamba for food and pharmaceutical applications.

Ethnopharmacological relevance Leonotis leonurus , locally commonly known as “wilde dagga” (=wild cannabis), is traditionally used as a decoction, both topically and orally, in the treatment of a wide variety of conditions such as haemorrhoids, eczema, skin rashes, boils, itching, muscular cramps, headache, epilepsy, chest infections, constipation, spider and snake bites. The dried leaves and flowers are also smoked to relieve epilepsy. The leaves and flowers are reported to produce a mild euphoric effect when smoked and have been said to have a similar, although less potent, psychoactive effect to cannabis. Aim of the review To amalgamate the botanical aspects, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, biological activity, toxicity and commercial aspects of the scientific literature available on L. leonurus . Methods An extensive review of the literature from 1900 to 2015 was carried out. Electronic databases including Scopus ® , SciFinder®, Pubmed ® , Google Scholar ® and Google ® were used as data sources. All abstracts, full-text articles and books written in English were considered. Results The phytochemistry of particularly the non-volatile constituents of L. leonurus has been comprehensively investigated due to interest generated as a result of the wide variety of biological effects reported for this plant. More than 50 compounds have been isolated and characterised. L. leonurus contains mainly terpenoids, particularly labdane diterpenes, the major diterpene reported is marrubiin. Various other compounds have been reported by some authors to have been isolated from the plant, including, in the popular literature only, the mildly psychoactive alkaloid, leonurine. Leonurine has however, never been reported by any scientific analysis of the extracts of L. leonurus. Conclusion Despite the publication of various papers on L. leonurus , there is still, however, the need for definitive research and clarification of other compounds, including alkaloids and essential oils from L. leonurus , as well as from other plant parts, such as the roots which are extensively used in traditional medicine. The traditional use by smoking also requires further investigation as to how the chemistry and activity are affected by this form of administration. Research has proven the psychoactive effects of the crude extract of L. leonurus, but confirmation of the presence of psychoactive compounds, as well as isolation and characterization, is still required. Deliberate adulteration of L. leonurus with synthetic cannabinoids has been reported recently, in an attempt to facilitate the marketing of these illegal substances, highlighting the necessity for refinement of appropriate quality control processes to ensure safety and quality. Much work is therefore still required on the aspect of quality control to ensure safety, quality and efficacy of the product supplied to patients, as this plant is widely used in South Africa as a traditional medicine. Commercially available plant sources provide a viable option for phytochemical research, particularly with regard to the appropriate validation of the plant material (taxonomy) in order to identify and delimit closely related species such as L. leonurus and L. nepetifolia which are very similar in habit.

Ethnopharmacological relevance This paper provides significant ethnobotanical information on medicinal plants in the villages of Catak in the Eastern Anatolia Region. Recording such data calls for urgency. This is the first ethnobotanical study in which statistical calculations about plants are carried out by means of FIC method in Eastern (Van) part of Turkey. Aim of the study This study aims to identify the wild plants collected for medicinal purposes by locals of Catak which is located in the Eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey, and to identify the uses and local names of these wild plants. Materials and methods A field study had been carried out for a period of approximately 2 years (2010–2012). During this period, 78 plants taxa were collected. Demographic characteristics of participants, names of the local plants, their utilized parts and preparation methods were investigated and recorded. The plant taxa were collected within the scope of the study; and herbarium materials were prepared. In addition, the relative significance value of the taxa was determined, and informant consensus factor (FIC) was calculated for the medicinal plants included in the study. Results We have found out in the literature review of the plants included in our study that 78 plant taxa are already used for medicinal purposes while 19 plants are not available among the records in the literature. The most common families are Asteraceae, Apiaceae, Lamiaceae, Rosaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, and Malvaceae. We include in our study and report for the first time the medicinal uses of Alchemilla buseriana Rothm., Astragalus longifolius Lam., Cephalaria microcephala Boiss., Euphorbia grisophylla M.S. Khan, Fritillaria crassifolia Boiss. & Huet. subsp. kurdica (Boiss. & Noe) Rix, Fritillaria pinardii Boiss., Malabaila lasiocarpa Boiss., Nepeta betonicifolia C.A. Mey., Onobrychis altissima Grossh., Onobrychis carduchorum C.C. Townsend, Papaver bracteatum Lindl., Phlomis tuberosa L., Psephellus karduchorum (Boiss.) Wagenitz, Scutellaria orientalis L. subsp. pichleri (Stapf.) Edmondson, Stachys kurdica Boiss. & Hohen var. kurdica, Tanacetum kotschyi (Boiss.) Grierson, Tanacetum zahlbruckneri (Nâb.) Grierson, Turanecio eriospermus (DC.) Hamzaoglu, Verbascum pyramidatum M.Bieb. Names of local plants in Turkey vary especially due to vernaculars. The plants that the locals of Catak use are called with the same or different local names in various parts of Anatolia. Conclusion We found out that locals living in the research area use for therapeutic purpose 78 plants taxa which belong to 22 families. Turkish citizens with different ethnic backgrounds took the questionnaire. These people use these wild plants in treatment of several diseases. Comparison of the data obtained in this study with the experimental data obtained in the previous laboratory studies on the wild plants which grow in Catak proved ethnobotanical usages to a great extent. Literature review indicated that the therapeutic plants that grow in Catak are used in different parts of the world for the treatment of similar diseases.

18 p., mapas, gráf., tablas. -- Post-print del artículo publicado en Journal of Ethnopharmacology. Versión revisada y corregida., Ethnopharmacological relevance The skin is the main structure that protects the human body from environmental factors and has, in addition, a relevant relationship to people׳s appearance and beauty. Official medicine and cosmetics have shown interest on elaborating products to protect the dermal system, yet the role of folk medicine is highly unknown in this field. Taking this into account, we performed an ethnobotanical study in a Catalan district of the eastern Pyrenees (northeast Iberian Peninsula), with the purpose of assessing popular plant knowledge and use. In this paper, we present exclusively the results on topically-used plants. Additionally, we have performed a thorough literature search in order to validate the uses of plants recorded in well-established pharmacological works. Methodology A number of 163 informants (57.7% women and 42.3% men, born between 1915 and 1988, with an average age of 71.6 years) were interviewed by means of 104 semi-structured interviews. Voucher specimens were collected, prepared and deposited in the BCN herbarium. Results We collected information on the popular uses implying topical application of 115 plant taxa (three determined at generic level and 112 at specific level), belonging to 92 genera and 51 families. Taxa with use reports higher than 5% included Arnica montana subsp. montana, Hypericum perforatum, Thymus vulgaris, Lilium candidum and Tussilago farfara. The degree of reliability of the results is very high, as indicated by a big number of report uses (1676) and a very high informant consensus factor (0.93 of a maximum of 1). Topical uses of 21 plant taxa with more than 1% of use reports have been validated consulting pharmacological literature. Conclusions Data indicate a high degree of plant knowledge in the studied region regarding dermal conditions, cosmetics and additional affections (such as snake bite). The present study constitutes a good basis for further phytochemical and pharmacological research, which could be of interest in the design of new drugs. Furthermore, the evidence of these folk uses could be the key information in simplified procedures established by the European Union for the registration of herbal medicinal products based on traditionally used plants, reinforcing the already recognized role of ethnobotany in the mentioned applied research and development field., This research was supported by projects 2005ACOM00024, 2009ACOM00013, 2009SGR00439 and 2014SGR00514 from the Generalitat de Catalunya and project AP07/07 from the Institut Ramon Muntaner.

Ethnopharmacological relevance This paper provides important ethnopharmacological information on plants used in neurological and mental disorders in Navarra. Material and methods Information was collected using semi-structured ethnobotanical interviews with 667 informants in 265 locations. In order to confirm the pharmacological validation of the uses claimed by the informants, monographs from Official International Agencies (ESCOP, Commission E, WHO and EMA) were reviewed. A literature review was conducted focusing on the plants that were widely used but had no published monograph. Results A total of 172 pharmaceutical uses were reported, for 46 plants and 26 families, mainly represented by Lamiaceae (15%), Asteraceae (13%), Rosaceae and Rutaceae (7%, each one), and Clusiaceae , Malvaceae , Papaveraceae and Urticaceae (4%, each one). The most frequently used parts were inflorescence (39%), flowered aerial parts (16%), and aerial parts (13%), followed by inflorescence bract (8%) and leaves (7%). Nine out of 46 plants (20%) and 81 of 172 uses (47%), have already been pharmacologically validated. The remaining 37 plants (of total 46, 80%) have been reported for neurological and mental disorders and need to be screened through standard pharmacological and clinical procedures for their activities. The most used species are Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All., Jasonia glutinosa (L.) DC., and Santolina chamaecyparissus L. ssp. squarrosa (DC.) Nyman, in all cases the administration as infusion. Conclusions Data indicate a high degree of plants knowledge in Navarra regarding neurological and mental disorders. The present study constitutes a good basis for further phytochemical and pharmacological research of C. nobile , J. glutinosa and S. chamaecyparissus , which could be of interest in the design of new inexpensive, effective and safe drugs.

Ethnopharmacological relevance Sophora flavescens (Fabaceae), also known as Kushen (Chinese: 苦参), has been an important species in Chinese medicine since the Qin and Han dynasties. The root of Sophora flavescens has a long history in the traditional medicine of many countries, including China, Japan, Korea, India and some countries in Europe. In traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), Sophora flavescens has been used extensively, mainly in combination with other medicinal plants in prescriptions to treat fever, dysentery, hematochezia, jaundice, oliguria, vulvar swelling, asthma, eczema, inflammatory disorders, ulcers and diseases associated with skin burns. The aim of this review is to provide updated and comprehensive information regarding the botany, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, biological activities and toxicology of Sophora flavescens and to discuss possible trends and opportunities for further research on Sophora flavescens . Materials and methods We systematically searched major scientific databases (PubMed, Elsevier, SpringerLink, Google Scholar, Medline Plus, ACS, “ Da Yi Yi Xue Sou Suo ( http://www.dayi100.com/login.jsp )”, China Knowledge Resource Integrated (CNKI) and Web of Science) for information published between 1958 and 2015 on Sophora flavescens . Information was also acquired from local classic herbal literature, conference papers, government reports, and PhD and MSc dissertations. Results The broad spectrum of biological activities associated with Sophora flavescens has been considered a valuable resource in both traditional and modern medicine. Extracts are taken either orally or by injection. More than 200 compounds have been isolated from Sophora flavescens , and the major components have been identified as flavonoids and alkaloids. Recent in vitro and in vivo studies indicate that at least 50 pure compounds and crude extracts from Sophora flavescens possess wide-ranging antitumor, antimicrobial, antipyretic, antinociceptive, and anti-inflammatory pharmacological abilities. The anticancer and anti-infection abilities of these components are especially attractive areas for research. Conclusions Sophora flavescens is a promising traditional medicine, but there is a need for more precise studies to test the safety and clinical value of its main active crude extracts and pure compounds and to clarify their mechanisms of action. Moreover, some existing studies have lacked systematic methods and integration with the existing literature, and some of the experiments were isolated, used small sample sizes and were unreliable. More validated data are therefore required.

We thank all the people of Aladaglar/Nigde who participated in this survey and shared valuable information. This work was supported by Scientific Research Projects Coordination Unit of Istanbul University. Project no.: T-488/25062004. Project name: an ethnobotanical investigation in Western Part of Central Taurus Mountains: Aladaglar/Nigde, 2003-2005., Ethnopharmacological relevance: With this study, we aimed to document traditional uses of medicinal plants in the western part of Aladaglar/Nigde. Materials and methods: This study was conducted between 2003 and 2005. The research area was in the western part of the Aladaglar mountains. The settlements in Aladaglar (5 towns and 10 villages) were visited during the field work The plants collected by the help of medicinal plant users. The plants were identified and voucher specimens prepared. These voucher specimens were kept at the Herbarium of Istanbul University Faculty of Pharmacy (ISTE). We collected the information by means of semi-structured interviews with 170 informants (90 men and 80 women). In addition, the relative importance value of the species was determined and the informant consensus factor (FIC) was calculated for the medicinal plants researched in the study. Results: According to the results of the identification, among 126 plants were used by the inhabitants and 110 species belonging to 40 families were used for medicinal purposes. Most of the medicinal plants used in Aladaglar/Nigde belong to the families Lamiaceae (25 species), Asteraceae (16 species), Apiaceae (7 species), Fabaceae (6 species) and Brassicaceae (5 species). The most commonly used plant species were Hypericum perforatum Thymus sipyleus var. sipyleus, Rosa canina, Urtica dioica, Malva neglecta, Thymus leucotrichus, Salix alba, Mentha longifolia, Berberis crataegina, Juniperus oxycedrus, Viscum album subsp. abietis, Allium rotundum and Taraxacum stevenii. The most common preparations were infusion and decoction. The traditional medicinal plants have been mostly used for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases (86%), hemorrhoids (79%), urinary diseases (69%), diabetes (68%) and respiratory diseases (61%). Conclusion: The use of traditional medicine was still widespread among the inhabitants of Aladaglar mountains/Nigde region. Due to the lack of medical facilities in the villages of Aladaglar mountains, local people prefer herbal treatment rather than medical treatment. This study identified not only the wild plants collected for medical purposes by local people of Aladaglar/Nigde, but also the uses and local names of these plants. This paper helps to preserve valuable information that may otherwise be lost to future generations., Scientific Research Projects Coordination Unit of Istanbul University [T-488/25062004]

Ethnopharmacological relevance This paper provides important ethnopharmacological information on plants used in respiratory affections in Navarra. Material and methods Information was collected using semi-structured ethnobotanical interviews with 667 informants in 265 locations. In order to confirm the pharmacological validation of the uses claimed by the informants, monographs from Official International Agencies (ESCOP, Commission E, WHO and EMA) were reviewed. A literature review was conducted focusing on the plants that were widely used but had no published monograph. Results A total of 456 pharmaceutical uses was reported, for 79 plants and 34 families, mainly represented by Lamiaceae, Asteraceae, Rosaceae, Crassulaceae and Malvaceae. The most frequently used parts were the aerial parts followed by inflorescences and leaves. Twenty-two out of 79 plants (28%) and 270 of 456 uses (42%), had already been pharmacologically validated. Conclusions The authors propose Verbena officinalis for validation.

Ethnopharmacological relevance This paper provides significant ethnopharmacological information on plants used to treat cardiovascular diseases in Navarra, Spain. Material and methods Information was collected using semi-structured ethnobotanical interviews with 667 informants (mean age 72; 55.47% women, 44.53% men) in 265 locations. Official sources such as the European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy (ESCOP), German Commission E, World Health Organization (WHO), European Medicines Agency (EMA), European Pharmacopoeia (Ph. Eur.) and Real Farmacopea Espanola (RFE) monographs were consulted in order to establish the therapeutic efficacy of the reported uses and to obtain further details about quality and safety aspects. A literature review was carried out on the plants that were most frequently cited and were not the subject of a monograph, using a new tool developed by the University of Navarra, UNIKA. Results A total of 460 pharmaceutical uses were reported by the informants, belonging to 90 plant species and 39 families, mainly represented by Urticaceae , Rosaceae , Asteraceae , and Equisetaceae . The most frequently used parts of the plants were the aerial parts followed by leaves and flowers. Seventeen out of 90 plants (19%) and 208 out of 460 popular uses (45%) had already been pharmacologically validated in relation to their therapeutic efficacy and safety aspects. Conclusions The authors propose to validate five species for their use in cardiovascular diseases: Rhamnus alaternus L., Potentilla reptans L., Equisetum telmateia Ehrh., Centaurium erythraea Rafn and Parietaria judaica L.

Ethnopharmacological relevance The present paper documents the utilization of medicinal plants for the treatment of various human ailments in two village development committees in the Rasuwa district of central Nepal. It also evaluates the ethnopharmacological significance of the documented reports and identifies species of high indigenous priority in local therapeutics. Materials and methods The ethnobotanical information was collected by interviews and group discussions using standard ethnobotanical procedures. The homogeneity of informant׳s knowledge was validated by Informant consensus factor ( F IC ) and the relative importance of a plant species used as medicine in the study area was calculated with the help of use value (UV). Results The present study identified a total of 46 medicinal plants belonging to 26 families used for the treatment of 38 human ailments. Besides medicinal uses, the study has also documented the culinary and cultural use of 13 species of medicinal plants. The most commonly used part was root constituting about 42% of the total utilized plants. The most commonly used form of preparation was paste (31.91%). We found new usage reports for 9 medicinal plants. The F IC value in the present study ranged from 0.66 to 1 with 84.6% values greater than 0.8 indicating high consensus among the informants. The most preferred species was Neopicrorhiza scrophulariflora (UV=0.96) and the lowest used value was found for Lyonia ovalifolia (UV=0.32). Conclusions People of Rasuwa possess rich traditional knowledge in medicinal plants utilization with strong consensus among local people on the utilization of species evident by higher F IC values in different ailment categories. Strong pharmacological evidence for a majority of species being currently used as medicines shows that the plants used in local therapeutics are likely to be more effective in treating different medical ailments. The bioactive compounds extracted from these medicinal plants could subsequently be used in the creation of novel drugs to treat life threatening human diseases. The species with high use values are the ones likely to be more vulnerable because of high demand and high collection pressure. Therefore, it is imperative to prioritize such species for cultivation and sustainable management in order to ensure their long term availability.

Background Ethnopharmacological relevance: Indigenous communities have often served as rich repositories of empirical knowledge on medicinal plants used for anemia. Use of these plants need to be validated with respect to their efficacy and safety so as to provide scientific basis of their use. Quantifying presence of medicinal plants used for anemia treatment, validating indigenous knowledge and extent of its use in rural Mkuranga district, Tanzania is the main focus of this paper. Methods A cross sectional study conducted in May and December 2013 at Mkuranga District of Coastal region of Tanzania. Forty key informants including traditional healers, religious leaders, community members and healthcare workers were interviewed using semi structured questionnaire. Eight focus group discussions were also conducted. Both interviews and focus group discussion gathered data on socio-demographics, general knowledge of anemia and plants used to correct anemia. In a brief field visit, all plants mentioned during the interview were collected and later identified. Both NVivo 10 and STATA softwares were employed for statistical analysis. Results Out of 40 participants, 31 were traditional healers, majority were male (77.4%). Mean age of the participants was 55.7±15 years. About 45% had no any formal education and majority (80%) were married. Twenty eight plant species are used to treat anemia. Hibiscus sabdariffa was the most mentioned species. The species belongs to 24 families, with Euphorbiaceae (14.3%) having the largest number. Lawsonia inermis, Aloe sp, Uvaria acuminata, Parinari curatellifolia, Ozoroa reticulata, Manihot esculenta, Canthium sp and Afzelia quanzensis were the plant species in which their claimed use for anemia were novel. Conclusions People in rural areas of Mkuranga district possess a rich traditional knowledge of medicinal plants species for anemia treatment. Researches on these plants showed promising anti-anemic activity. Analysis and documentation of this knowledge has not only helped the analysis and recognition of novel information, it also contributed to conserving it for future generations.

Ethnopharmacological relevance In particular five polypore species, i.e. Laetiporus sulphureus, Fomes fomentarius, Fomitopsis pinicola, Piptoporus betulinus, and Laricifomes officinalis, have been widely used in central European folk medicines for the treatment of various diseases, e.g. dysmenorrhoea, haemorrhoids, bladder disorders, pyretic diseases, treatment of coughs, cancer, and rheumatism. Prehistoric artefacts going back to over 5000 years underline the long tradition of using polypores for various applications ranging from food or tinder material to medicinal–spiritual uses as witnessed by two polypore species found among items of Otzi, the Iceman. The present paper reviews the traditional uses, phytochemistry, and biological activity of the five mentioned polypores. Materials and methods All available information on the selected polypore taxa used in traditional folk medicine was collected through evaluation of literature in libraries and searches in online databases using SciFinder and Web of Knowledge. Results Mycochemical studies report the presence of many primary (e.g. polysaccharides) and secondary metabolites (e.g. triterpenes). Crude extracts and isolated compounds show a wide spectrum of biological properties, such as anti-inflammatory, cytotoxic, and antimicrobial activities. Conclusions The investigated polypores possess a longstanding ethnomycological tradition in Europe. Here, we compile biological results which highlight their therapeutic value. Moreover, this work provides a solid base for further investigations on a molecular level, both compound- and target-wise.