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The Caucasus region lacks climate-sensitive chronologies that are continuous, high-resolution and covering more than several centuries at the same time. This paper presents the first high-resolution curve reflecting the variations of heat availability in the Western Caucasus over the past 1500 years. The chronology of bottom sediment of Lake Karakel is based on the two precisely overlapped sediment cores, constrained by ten 14C dates with a temporal resolution of around 3 years. Bromine content in the sediment is interpreted as a proxy for variations of heat availability based on its coherence with the broadleaved tree pollen content in the same deposits. Lake Karakel Br curve showed distinct agreement with hemispheric and regional temperature reconstructions starting from 500 CE, as well as with the tree-ring temperature reconstructions available for the Caucasus. It allowed a constraint of the time frames for the main climatic events in the Western Caucasus during the past 1500 years: Medieval Climate Anomaly (ca. 960–1270 CE) and Little Ice Age with its three separate stages (LIA 1 ca. 1270–1310 and 1370–1410; LIA 2 ca. 1500–1630; LIA 3 ca. 1750–1840). Br-derived variations of heat availability are also supported by the recent cosmogenic glacier moraine dates in the Caucasus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the conditions of formation of the Middle Jurassic iron-bearing strata, in the Labino-Malkin zone in the North-West Caucasus. The mineral composition and geochemical features of the rocks indicate variable conditions of rock formation. The predominance of clay and carbonate minerals in the sedimentary sequence, as well as Ce-anomaly values ranging from 0.9 to 1.4 indicate mainly suboxygenic conditions of sedimentation. Three intervals of anoxia characterised by U, Mo and V enrichment, the presence of siderite and a large amount of pyrite macroframboids, and the formation of phosphorites were identified in the studied section. Oxygen depletion of seawater is the result of upwelling. Formation of oxide minerals was promoted by oxygen saturation of the environment due to sea transgression or meteoric water inflow, which is confirmed by isotope analysis indicators (δ18Ocarb from −11.6‰ to −1.2‰). Eight chemical and two clastic lithofacies were identified based on the mineralogical, geochemical and textural-structural features of the studied strata. Depending on the material input into the basin, different rock types were formed. The constant value of detrital elements Ti and Al indicates a constant input of terrigenous material from the continent. The abundant input of terrigenous material favoured the formation of sandstones and clay minerals. Decomposition of organic matter favoured the formation of limestones and phosphorites due to the input of phosphate- and carbonate-ions into the bottom layers. The presence of iron in seawater favoured the deposition of ironstones. Depending on the level of oxygen and carbon in the bottom environment of the basin, ironstones with siderite, clay or clay-carbonate cement were formed. Calcite and barite contain fluid inclusions of hydrocarbons and hydrogen sulphide gas, indicating the influence of submarine fluids on rock formation. Although the first explorers of the area assumed that the sources of metals come from the continent, the detection of fluid inclusions in the calcite cement, increased content of hydrothermal elements, and the presence of rare minerals such as galena, sphalerite, arsenopyrite, argentotetrahedrite, nugget silver, and coronadite, allows to consider hidden fluid venting as one of the sources of metals for the ooidal ironstones. • The section consists of sedimentary rocks among which 8 chemogenic and 2 terrigenous lithofacies are identified. • Formation of rocks took place in the shallow-marine zone in conditions of oxygen deficiency. • Three periods of intense hypoxia/anoxia were identified in the section. • Mineralogical and geochemical features of rocks allow to consider hydrothermal fluids as one of the sources of metals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Cenozoic succession in the Lower Kura Basin includes largely uniform, often carbonate-free mudstones. Because age dating of these sediments has proved difficult, the stratigraphy of the Cenozoic succession and the distribution of organic-rich strata are poorly known. A better understanding of the Cenozoic succession is not only important for petroleum-systems-analysis, but also for the understanding of the Cenozoic evolution of the Caucasus region. Therefore, bulk geochemical data (carbonate, TOC, sulphur, Rock-Eval) of 885 samples and biostratigraphic data were collected along seven outcrop profiles. This enabled the establishment of a continuous stratigraphic record from the Middle Eocene to the Late Miocene (Pontian). The study results show that potential source rocks are present in three stratigraphic units: the Middle Koun (Middle Eocene), Maikop Group (Oligo-Miocene) and Diatom Formation (Upper Miocene). The Middle Koun is about 100 m thick near the Caspian Sea and contains highly oil-prone sediments (2–24 wt% TOC; HI 300–577 mgHC/gTOC), which may generate 1.5 tHC/m2. The Maikop Group contains on average 1.8 wt% TOC, but is often gas-prone. Highly oil prone layers (2–5 wt% TOC; HI 300–450 mgHC/gTOC) are rare. Nevertheless, the Upper Maikop Formation may generate ∼2 tHC/m2. The Diatom Formation contains paper shales with high TOC contents (3–22 wt%) and HI values (350–770 mgHC/gTOC). The paper shale unit is more than 60 m thick near the Caspian Sea and can generate 3.8 tHC/m2. Previously it was thought that the Maikop Group had the highest petroleum potential, whilst Upper Miocene and Middle Eocene source intervals were overlooked. The Middle Eocene to Lower Oligocene succession in the Kura Basin is largely carbonate-free. In contrast, coeval successions elsewhere in the Caucasus region contain sediments with varying, but often high carbonate contents. Differences in carbonate content imply greater water depth during deposition in the Kura Basin. • Cenozoic organic matter-rich rocks in Azerbaijan occur in three distinct stratigraphic units. • The Middle Eocene Middle Koun Member is a prolific, but overlooked, source rock capable of generating up to 1.5 tHC/m2. • The Oligo- Miocene Maikop Group contains moderate amounts of organic matter, but can still generate about 2 tHC/m2. • Upper Miocene paper shales in the Diatom Fm. contain a remarkably high petroleum potential and may generate 3.8 tHC/m2. • Water depth during Middle Eocene to Lower Oligocene time was higher in Azerbaijan than in other in other Caucasus areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Majority of researchers consider the Arabian-Caucasus region as a corridor for migration of earliest hominins from their African motherland to Eurasia. The paper is devoted to geological position of main stratified localities of the earliest Paleolithic industries in the Arabian-Caucasus region and estimation of environment of creators of these industries. The following early Paleolithic localities are analyzed: 'Ubeidiya in Israel, middle Orontes River, Halabiyeh-Zalabiyeh area in the Euphrates River valley, and Aïn al Fil in Syria, Dursunlu in Central Turkey, Şambayat, Bostancık, Eskimalatya, and Kovancılar in Eastern Turkey, Karakhach, Muradovo, Agvoric, and Jradzor in NW Armenia, Dmanisi in Southern Georgia, the Azykh cave in Nagornyi Karabakh, Muhkai II in Dagestan, and Kermek in the Taman Peninsula. The evolution of large and small mammals and palynological data on changes of vegetation from the Late Pliocene to the early Middle Pleistocene are studied to determine the age of the earliest Paleolithic industries and climatic conditions of that epoch. Combined analysis of paleontological, paleomagnetic and radio-isotopic data and geological correlation of the sections available for the Halabiyeh-Zalabiyeh, Şambayat, Kovancılar, Karakhach, Dmanisi, Muhkai II, and Kermek localities shows that their age is ranged in time interval ca. 2.0–1.7 Ma. The 1.7–1.6 Ma age of the lowest layers of 'Ubeidiya with Oldowan-type artefacts probably marks the end of this epoch. Removal of topographic effects of the late Calabrian and younger tectonic uplifts and offsets on major strike-slip faults shows that the topography of the late Gelasian – early Calabrian was much lower and less differentiated and main river systems were more passable than in the present time. The climate of the end of Gelasian was wet and relatively warm, with meadow-steppe and forest-steppe savanna-type vegetation in basins and valleys and coniferous and coniferous–broad-leaved forests in the mountains. Abundance of vegetation was supported by water resources of numerous rivers, lakes, and springs in the intermountain basins and valleys that were controlled partly by fault activity. This stimulated abundance of herbivorous mammals. In spite of relative aridisation at the beginning of Calabrian, vegetation continued to be freely available for herbivores. Hominin dispersal into the region was supported by rich resources of herbivores during the late Gelasian – early Calabrian time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Arslantepe is a höyük (= tell) located within the fertile Malatya Plain, near the right bank of the Euphrates River. The site is excavated since more than 55 years by the Italian Sapienza University archaeologists and reveals periods from at least the sixth millennium BCE until the final destruction of the Neo-Hittite town. This long sequence records the changing relations and connections with various civilizations and regions of the Near East. Using the chemical characterization of a large group of artefacts (388 analysed), we propose, in this paper, a new sourcing of the obsidian used by the inhabitants of Arslantepe from the beginning of the Late Chalcolithic to the end of the Early Bronze Age. The method is based on the portable XRF analyse of the artefacts and their attribution to a geological source using our database collected within the ongoing “GeObs” project (resp. D. Mouralis) in the Eastern Anatolia as well as previous published data in Central Anatolia and Caucasus. Moreover, the chemical characterization is coupled with the techno-functional determination of the artefacts. The present study conducted by an interdisciplinary research group allows to precise the procurement of obsidian in Arslantepe and to better understand the external relations of the site over time. This research also questions and discusses the preferential choice of the obsidian sources through time, in relation with various factors such as distance, quality and abundance of the raw material as well as socio-cultural influences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ongoing deformation processes combining fault propagation and folding are the cause of diffuse seismicity in many areas of the world. A detailed understanding of the structural evolution of tectonically active folds is crucial for the evaluation of seismic hazard. This paper proposes an integrated analysis of an active fold, consisting in the development of a 3D model by combination of geomorphological observations, field geological-structural data and seismic reflection sections. Our case study is the Tsaishi anticline, located at the southwestern tip of the Rioni Basin uplifted area, at the foothill of Greater Caucasus (Western Georgia). We recognized that the fold started to form since the beginning of the middle Miocene, although preliminary data suggest the possibility of initial local uplift in the Oligocene. Folding process continues up to nowadays giving rise to a south-vergent anticline, as shown by upwarped late Quaternary river deposits. The fold backlimb is affected by three main back-thrusts, whereas at the foot of the forelimb a main north-dipping thrust comes very close to the surface based on seismic sections. Here, field data show the presence of a 13-km-long fault scarp (or fold scarp). Along the scarp is located the epicenter of the strongest earthquake to date: the M S 6.0 Tsaishi earthquake that struck the area in 1614 CE. Based on our results, we propose that the overall structure can be classified as an active fault-propagation fold. The recognition of its very recent growing associated with a major, underlying active fault, represents also a major contribution to the seismic hazard assessment of this populated area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Eastern Mediterranean and Caucasus are located among the Eurasian, African and Arabian plates, and tectonic activities are very complex. In this paper, the kinematics and strain distribution in these regions are determined and investigated from dense GPS observations with over 1000 stations and longer observations. The elastic block model is used to constrain present-day plate motions and crustal deformation. The relative Euler vectors between the Nubian, Arabian, Caucasus, Anatolian and Central Iranian plates are estimated. The Arabian-Eurasia, Anatolian-Eurasia, Nubian-Eurasia, Caucasus-Eurasia and Central Iranian Euler vectors are 0.584 ± 0.1 Myr −1 , 0.825 ± 0.064 Myr −1 , 0.35 ± 0.175 Myr −1 , 0.85 ± 0.086 Myr −1 and 0.126 ± 0.016 Myr −1 . The strain rate in the East Mediterranean and Caucasus has been estimated from the GPS velocity field. The results show that the thrust dominated areas, the eastern Mediterranean-Middle East-Caucasus and Zagros have negative dilatation and the western Anatolia region has positive 2D dilatation rate with significant rotation. The west Anatolian shows the extension in NW-SE with about 150–199 nstrain/yr in the W-E direction. The Central Anatolia shows compression rate below 50 nstrain/yr and extensional strain rate adjacent to East Anatolian Fault and Dead Sea Fault is about 0–100 nstrain/yr. The contraction strain rate is higher in Zagros and Caucasus between 100–150 nstrain/yr and contraction orientation is along the NE-SW direction in Caucasus. The north part of Iran shows less contraction rate below 50 nstrain/yr but North-East Zagros Mountains, Tabriz fault and Chalderan fault show extensional rate between 50–110 nstrain/yr and principal axes rotation in the N-S direction. The maximum contraction observed in the Kopek Dag is about 100–194 nstrain/yr and orientated in the NE-SW direction. East Zagros Mountain and Makran subduction zone have a large clockwise rotation with 70–85 nradian and principal axes remains mostly along the N-S direction. The observed extension is along N-S by about 0–100 nstrain/yr with counter clockwise rotation in Dead Sea Fault. The Sinai block shows shortening rate in the range of 0–100 nstrain/yr. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines Internet use in the Southern Caucasus by qualitative and quantitative methods. Firstly, as the developments in ICTs affect Internet use, the macroeconomic problems faced in the development of the sector are qualitatively analyzed. It is seen that high Internet service prices, government dominance, and lack of competition in the ICT sector as well as the wars in some regions are obstacles to Internet use. Finally, the determinants of Internet use are explored using survey data and employing microeconometric techniques considering sample selection. The empirical findings, inter alia , indicate that key variables contributing to frequent Internet use are computer ability in Armenia and computer ownership in Azerbaijan, and mobile phone ownership in Georgia. • The development of the ICT sector is qualitatively, and the determinants of internet use quantitatively examined. • Qualitative analyses indicate that high prices, lack of liberalization, and wars are obstacles to internet use. • Quantitative analyses show that key variables contributing frequent internet use are technology-related. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rupestrian habitat is a distinctive element of the Mediterranean landscape. It is made of structures excavated in the rocks and making benefit from the availability of weak rocks or the presence (in earlier period) of natural hollows and rock shelters. Typical examples are from all over the Mediterranean region, such as the sepulchral monuments and temples which date back to the years before the Christian era (Hittitian, Egyptian, Etruscan, Hellenistic Nabatean and early Christian structures) or the underground town and churches in Christian, Byzantine and medieval period (Caucasus, Anatolia, Ethiopia). Responsible institutions, as well as UNESCO, are deeply involved in programs for mitigating the risk and proposing a proper maintenance plan. In the present paper some case studies have been investigated, to show anthropological and structural similarities among them, but also geological, geomechanical and geomorphological ones. Etruscan monuments and temple of Tarquinia and Norchia (Italy), Petra and Al-Ula (Nabatean kingdom), Byzantine rupestrian Heritage in the Caucasus (Georgia) and some others, may offer a clue to understand the interconnection of Mediterranean cultures during the time. On the other hand, considering their geological and topographical properties, the main acting processes are slope instability on a rock material, that sometime shows a behavior that is at border between weak rock and stiff soil and where water and weathering may play a relevant role in their morphological evolution and future survival. In such conditions the main effort is to preserve them from an irreversible damage and to maintain their integrity and authenticity, making use of a strategy based on deep knowledge, advanced monitoring, low impact mitigation approach, integrated with the enhancement of local capacity and expertise. • Rock-cut sites were among the first man-made works in the history of humanity, largely present in the Mediterranean regions. • Sites were mainly sacred landscapes, located in selected topographic areas (i.e. vertical cliff), constituted by weak rocks. • Considering geology and topography, rupestrian sites are mainly affected by slope instability, weathering and surface erosion. • Deep knowledge, new technologies and monitoring, are essential in the investigation phase, to understand potential threats. • A low impact and sustainable mitigation strategy is mandatory, to maintain the integrity and authenticity of sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Classical chemical classification plots that use major anions and cations can discern between different water facies but they do not offer sufficient discriminatory power for salt waters from sedimentary basins, whose origin is therefore frequently misunderstood. The Brine Differentiation Plot (BDP) was proposed by Hounslow (1995) in order to investigate the brine genesis, principally evaporite dissolution, alkali lakes and oilfield brines. However, its diagnostic potential has been undervalued so far. In this paper, the potential of BDP was tested and compared with the classical Langelier–Ludwig plot using concentration of major dissolved constituents of fresh to brine waters from different sedimentary basins (Northern Apennine Foredeep, Italy; Provence Basin, Western Mediterranean; Caucasus; Trinidad). Mixing processes between different water types as evaluated by these diagrams would seem to be constrained by the boron–chloride plot. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper presents an integrated geophysical study of the southern margin of the East European Craton (EEC) in the Karpinksy Swell-North Caucasus area. It presents new interpretations of deep refraction and wide-angle reflection “deep seismic sounding” (DSS) data as well as conventional seismic and CDP profiling and new analyses of potential field data, including three-dimensional gravity and magnetic modelling. An integrated model of the physical properties and structure of the Earth''s crust and, partially, upper mantle displays distinct features that are related to tectonic history of the study area. The Voronezh Massif (VM), the Ukrainian Shield and Rostov Dome (RD) of the EEC as well as the Donbas Foldbelt (DF), Karpinsky Swell (KS), Scythian Plate (SP) and Precaspian Basin (PCB) constitute the geodynamic ensemble that developed on the southern margin of the continent Baltica. There proposed evolutionary model comprises a stage of rifting during the middle to late Devonian, post-rift extension and subsidence during Carboniferous–early Permian times (synchronous with and related to the southward displacement of the Rostov Dome and extension in a palaeo-Scythian back-arc basin), and subsequent Mesozoic and younger evolution. A pre-Ordovician, possibly Riphean (?), mafic magmatic complex is inferred on a near vertical reflection seismic cross-section through the western portion of the Astrakhan Dome in the southwest part of the Precaspian Basin. This complex combined with evidence of a subducting slab in the upper mantle imply the presence of pre-Ordovician (Riphean?) island arc, with synchronous extension in a Precaspian back-arc basin is suggested. A middle Palaeozoic back-arc basin ensemble in what is now the western Karpinsky Swell was more than 100 km to the south from its present location. The Stavropol High migrated northwards, dislocating and moving fragments of this back-arc basin sometime thereafter. Linear positive magnetic anomalies reflect the position of associated faults, which define the location of the eastern segment of the Karpinsky Swell. These faults, which dip northward, are recognised on crustal DSS profiles crossing the Donbas Foldbelt and Scythian Plate. They are interpreted in terms of compressional tectonics younger than the Hercynian stage of evolution (i.e., post-Palaeozoic). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Les auteurs de cet article publient les premiers résultats de leur recherche multidisciplinaire et des datations au radiocarbone des sites archéologiques de la fin du Pléistocène – début de l'Holocène dans la région d'Elbrouz et au Nord-Central du Caucase. En se basant sur ces résultats, on a reconstruit la dynamique paléoclimatique des différents stades de peuplement au cours de cette période. Les matériaux archéologiques ont été étudiés dans le contexte d'autres sites du Nord du Caucase. In this paper, the authors report for the first-time results of multi-disciplinary research and radiocarbon dating in archaeological sites covering the period of transition from final Pleistocene to early Holocene in the Mount Elbrus region, in the north-central Caucasus. Basing on these results, dynamics of environmental conditions is reconstructed for different stages of human occupation of this period. The archaeological assemblages are viewed in the context of contemporary sites in the Northern Caucasus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While bears (Ursidae) are well represented in Western Europe and the Caucasus during the Pleistocene, bear remains from this period are rare in Southwest Asia. Only a limited number of sites, both natural and archaeological, have yielded evidence of brown bear (Ursus arctos Linnaeus, 1758). Skeletal remains for this species are often represented by a limited number of elements. The discovery of 192 remains identified as brown bear in Wezmeh Cave (Kermanshah Province, Iran) is exceptional. This paper presents a detailed description of the Wezmeh osteological assemblage, which confirms that U. arctos was already present in Zagros during the Upper Pleistocene. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past several years, the analysis of the determinants of renewable energy production has become an increasingly popular topic in academic research and governmental policy around the globe. However, many questions about these factors, especially in the transition economies in Central and Eastern Europe and the Caucasus and Central Asia, remain unanswered. To address this gap, this paper presents novel empirical evidence on the primary economic and political factors shaping transitions to a low carbon economy via renewable energy generation in post-socialist countries. Using extensive data from 27 transition economies over the years 1990–2014, it has been found that higher economic growth and rising level of unemployment and government debt acted as stimulators of renewable energy generation. The implementation of the Kyoto Protocol also led to the significant increase in renewables utilization. Furthermore, increasing CO 2 emissions per capita, the implementation of the competition policy and deteriorating competitiveness within the energy market significantly limited production of energy from renewable sources. The findings also suggest that since the beginning of the last global financial crisis in 2007 reinforcement of competition within energy market and additional public funding had a much stronger role to play as factors stimulating renewables deployment. • The study provides insights on factors influencing renewable energy generation. • Data from 27 transition countries over the years 1990–2014 were analyzed. • The implementation of the Kyoto Protocol was a milestone in energy transition. • Economic growth, unemployment and rising government debt acted as stimulators. • Deteriorating energy market competitiveness limited renewables deployment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coulomb stress variations may trigger earthquakes, while the stress transfer process is not clear. In this paper, Coulomb stress changes are investigated for the sequences of strong earthquakes in the Caucasus region, which followed the 1988 M w 6.8 in Spitak, the 1991 M w 6.9 in Racha and the 2000 M w 6.2 in Baku. Our results show that the mainshocks induced variations in the stress field where most of the seismic events occurred. Coulomb stress increases 2 bars corresponding nearly to places of aftershocks, while the stress falls above 10 bars for Racha mainshock. The calculated Coulomb stress loaded about 5 bars at the end of rupture plane and the stress falls ~9 bars for Spitak mainshock. Our stress pattern shows a correlation within the areas of Coulomb stress caused by the combination of seismicity. Correlations between the coseismic Coulomb stress changes and the observed spatial patterns of the aftershocks created by the mainshock are illustrated by the stress variations over both optimally oriented and specified fault planes. An apparent correlation between the mainshock stress changes and the detected spatial pattern of the aftershocks is found, confirming the utility of the stress maps in constraining the expected locations of the forthcoming aftershocks and mitigating earthquake hazards. • Coulomb stress changes are calculated on M w ≥ 6 earthquakes in the Caucasus. • The regional stress orientations and Coulomb stress are estimated on optimally oriented planes. • The seismicity rate differences are correlated with the estimated Coulomb stress changes. • Stress changes make a significant difference in the region with relatively high seismicity rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Caucasian Urum is an Anatolian variety of Turkish spoken in the Small Caucasus in Georgia, which shows crucial influences from its contact language Russian, especially in the syntax and the lexicon. One result of this language contact is that both OV and VO orders can occur in similar discourse contexts. This paper examines the effect of focus on word order preferences in Caucasian Urum in comparison to its substrate language Turkish and its contact language Russian. The results of the semi-naturalistic speech production study reveal several interesting differences between the three object languages. One major finding is that the position of foci in Urum is far more flexible than in Turkish and Russian, which implies that the change in the Urum word order led to an extension of the information structural possibilities of the language. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: DNA profiling results presented in court must be accompanied by a statistical estimate of its evidential weight. In calculating such statistics, allele frequencies from the tested loci are required. This paper reports allele frequencies and the results of population genetic testing of datasets of autosomal microsatellite profiles from Australian Caucasian donors. In contrast to previous practice in Australia these data have been collated at the national level rather than at the State and Territory level. We consider that this national dataset could be used in forensic DNA casework throughout Australia as previously recommended by Ayres et al. [K.L. Ayres, J. Chaseling, D.J. Balding, Implications for DNA identification arising from an analysis of Australian forensic databases, Forensic Sci. Int. 129 (2002) 90–98]. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]