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The Caucasus region lacks climate-sensitive chronologies that are continuous, high-resolution and covering more than several centuries at the same time. This paper presents the first high-resolution curve reflecting the variations of heat availability in the Western Caucasus over the past 1500 years. The chronology of bottom sediment of Lake Karakel is based on the two precisely overlapped sediment cores, constrained by ten 14C dates with a temporal resolution of around 3 years. Bromine content in the sediment is interpreted as a proxy for variations of heat availability based on its coherence with the broadleaved tree pollen content in the same deposits. Lake Karakel Br curve showed distinct agreement with hemispheric and regional temperature reconstructions starting from 500 CE, as well as with the tree-ring temperature reconstructions available for the Caucasus. It allowed a constraint of the time frames for the main climatic events in the Western Caucasus during the past 1500 years: Medieval Climate Anomaly (ca. 960–1270 CE) and Little Ice Age with its three separate stages (LIA 1 ca. 1270–1310 and 1370–1410; LIA 2 ca. 1500–1630; LIA 3 ca. 1750–1840). Br-derived variations of heat availability are also supported by the recent cosmogenic glacier moraine dates in the Caucasus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Cenozoic succession in the Lower Kura Basin includes largely uniform, often carbonate-free mudstones. Because age dating of these sediments has proved difficult, the stratigraphy of the Cenozoic succession and the distribution of organic-rich strata are poorly known. A better understanding of the Cenozoic succession is not only important for petroleum-systems-analysis, but also for the understanding of the Cenozoic evolution of the Caucasus region. Therefore, bulk geochemical data (carbonate, TOC, sulphur, Rock-Eval) of 885 samples and biostratigraphic data were collected along seven outcrop profiles. This enabled the establishment of a continuous stratigraphic record from the Middle Eocene to the Late Miocene (Pontian). The study results show that potential source rocks are present in three stratigraphic units: the Middle Koun (Middle Eocene), Maikop Group (Oligo-Miocene) and Diatom Formation (Upper Miocene). The Middle Koun is about 100 m thick near the Caspian Sea and contains highly oil-prone sediments (2–24 wt% TOC; HI 300–577 mgHC/gTOC), which may generate 1.5 tHC/m2. The Maikop Group contains on average 1.8 wt% TOC, but is often gas-prone. Highly oil prone layers (2–5 wt% TOC; HI 300–450 mgHC/gTOC) are rare. Nevertheless, the Upper Maikop Formation may generate ∼2 tHC/m2. The Diatom Formation contains paper shales with high TOC contents (3–22 wt%) and HI values (350–770 mgHC/gTOC). The paper shale unit is more than 60 m thick near the Caspian Sea and can generate 3.8 tHC/m2. Previously it was thought that the Maikop Group had the highest petroleum potential, whilst Upper Miocene and Middle Eocene source intervals were overlooked. The Middle Eocene to Lower Oligocene succession in the Kura Basin is largely carbonate-free. In contrast, coeval successions elsewhere in the Caucasus region contain sediments with varying, but often high carbonate contents. Differences in carbonate content imply greater water depth during deposition in the Kura Basin. • Cenozoic organic matter-rich rocks in Azerbaijan occur in three distinct stratigraphic units. • The Middle Eocene Middle Koun Member is a prolific, but overlooked, source rock capable of generating up to 1.5 tHC/m2. • The Oligo- Miocene Maikop Group contains moderate amounts of organic matter, but can still generate about 2 tHC/m2. • Upper Miocene paper shales in the Diatom Fm. contain a remarkably high petroleum potential and may generate 3.8 tHC/m2. • Water depth during Middle Eocene to Lower Oligocene time was higher in Azerbaijan than in other in other Caucasus areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the conditions of formation of the Middle Jurassic iron-bearing strata, in the Labino-Malkin zone in the North-West Caucasus. The mineral composition and geochemical features of the rocks indicate variable conditions of rock formation. The predominance of clay and carbonate minerals in the sedimentary sequence, as well as Ce-anomaly values ranging from 0.9 to 1.4 indicate mainly suboxygenic conditions of sedimentation. Three intervals of anoxia characterised by U, Mo and V enrichment, the presence of siderite and a large amount of pyrite macroframboids, and the formation of phosphorites were identified in the studied section. Oxygen depletion of seawater is the result of upwelling. Formation of oxide minerals was promoted by oxygen saturation of the environment due to sea transgression or meteoric water inflow, which is confirmed by isotope analysis indicators (δ18Ocarb from −11.6‰ to −1.2‰). Eight chemical and two clastic lithofacies were identified based on the mineralogical, geochemical and textural-structural features of the studied strata. Depending on the material input into the basin, different rock types were formed. The constant value of detrital elements Ti and Al indicates a constant input of terrigenous material from the continent. The abundant input of terrigenous material favoured the formation of sandstones and clay minerals. Decomposition of organic matter favoured the formation of limestones and phosphorites due to the input of phosphate- and carbonate-ions into the bottom layers. The presence of iron in seawater favoured the deposition of ironstones. Depending on the level of oxygen and carbon in the bottom environment of the basin, ironstones with siderite, clay or clay-carbonate cement were formed. Calcite and barite contain fluid inclusions of hydrocarbons and hydrogen sulphide gas, indicating the influence of submarine fluids on rock formation. Although the first explorers of the area assumed that the sources of metals come from the continent, the detection of fluid inclusions in the calcite cement, increased content of hydrothermal elements, and the presence of rare minerals such as galena, sphalerite, arsenopyrite, argentotetrahedrite, nugget silver, and coronadite, allows to consider hidden fluid venting as one of the sources of metals for the ooidal ironstones. • The section consists of sedimentary rocks among which 8 chemogenic and 2 terrigenous lithofacies are identified. • Formation of rocks took place in the shallow-marine zone in conditions of oxygen deficiency. • Three periods of intense hypoxia/anoxia were identified in the section. • Mineralogical and geochemical features of rocks allow to consider hydrothermal fluids as one of the sources of metals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines Internet use in the Southern Caucasus by qualitative and quantitative methods. Firstly, as the developments in ICTs affect Internet use, the macroeconomic problems faced in the development of the sector are qualitatively analyzed. It is seen that high Internet service prices, government dominance, and lack of competition in the ICT sector as well as the wars in some regions are obstacles to Internet use. Finally, the determinants of Internet use are explored using survey data and employing microeconometric techniques considering sample selection. The empirical findings, inter alia , indicate that key variables contributing to frequent Internet use are computer ability in Armenia and computer ownership in Azerbaijan, and mobile phone ownership in Georgia. • The development of the ICT sector is qualitatively, and the determinants of internet use quantitatively examined. • Qualitative analyses indicate that high prices, lack of liberalization, and wars are obstacles to internet use. • Quantitative analyses show that key variables contributing frequent internet use are technology-related. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Ethnic conflict facilitates the re-emergence of infectious and vector borne diseases. • The Caucasus region remains vulnerable to P. vivax malaria. • Further instability in the Caucasus will amplify infectious disease risks. One of the most protracted post-Soviet conflicts of the 1990s was a territorial dispute between Armenia and Azerbaijan over the contested Karabakh region. Years of ethnic violence led to the displacement of nearly a million refugees, as well as a public health crisis that included epidemics of malaria, diphtheria and other preventable diseases. Malaria is not usually considered a health risk in temperate climates, but seasonal epidemics were widespread throughout the Caucasus in the early decades of the twentieth century. This paper combines qualitative historical research with geospatial analysis to explore how endemic malaria was controlled during the Soviet era, and how ethnic conflict reconfigured local ecologies to facilitate the re-emergence of P. vivax after the Soviet collapse in the 1990s. This research reveals that ethnic conflicts have specific qualities that increase risks of infectious and vector borne disease outbreaks, even in places that have successfully achieved a modern health and mortality profile. The risk amplifiers of ethnic conflicts include 1) the creation of contested spaces controlled by separatists that are outside of any national public health surveillance system; 2) mass population movements and refugee outflows due to ethnic violence; and 3) changes in land use that expand potential mosquito breeding sites throughout the conflict zone. Continued hostilities between Armenia and Azerbaijan, combined with the repopulation of key vector species (specifically An. sacharovi) lead us to conclude that populations in the Caucasus remain vulnerable to resurgent outbreaks of ethno-nationalist violence as well as the return of seasonal malaria, even after decades of successful control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rupestrian habitat is a distinctive element of the Mediterranean landscape. It is made of structures excavated in the rocks and making benefit from the availability of weak rocks or the presence (in earlier period) of natural hollows and rock shelters. Typical examples are from all over the Mediterranean region, such as the sepulchral monuments and temples which date back to the years before the Christian era (Hittitian, Egyptian, Etruscan, Hellenistic Nabatean and early Christian structures) or the underground town and churches in Christian, Byzantine and medieval period (Caucasus, Anatolia, Ethiopia). Responsible institutions, as well as UNESCO, are deeply involved in programs for mitigating the risk and proposing a proper maintenance plan. In the present paper some case studies have been investigated, to show anthropological and structural similarities among them, but also geological, geomechanical and geomorphological ones. Etruscan monuments and temple of Tarquinia and Norchia (Italy), Petra and Al-Ula (Nabatean kingdom), Byzantine rupestrian Heritage in the Caucasus (Georgia) and some others, may offer a clue to understand the interconnection of Mediterranean cultures during the time. On the other hand, considering their geological and topographical properties, the main acting processes are slope instability on a rock material, that sometime shows a behavior that is at border between weak rock and stiff soil and where water and weathering may play a relevant role in their morphological evolution and future survival. In such conditions the main effort is to preserve them from an irreversible damage and to maintain their integrity and authenticity, making use of a strategy based on deep knowledge, advanced monitoring, low impact mitigation approach, integrated with the enhancement of local capacity and expertise. • Rock-cut sites were among the first man-made works in the history of humanity, largely present in the Mediterranean regions. • Sites were mainly sacred landscapes, located in selected topographic areas (i.e. vertical cliff), constituted by weak rocks. • Considering geology and topography, rupestrian sites are mainly affected by slope instability, weathering and surface erosion. • Deep knowledge, new technologies and monitoring, are essential in the investigation phase, to understand potential threats. • A low impact and sustainable mitigation strategy is mandatory, to maintain the integrity and authenticity of sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]