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The wireless sensor network is one of the promising technologies in the agriculture field. Its actual usage in real agriculture fields is limited by its dependence on the small batteries which cannot make the network survive for long. Various protocols are being designed at the network and MAC layer to increase the lifetime of the nodes, but up to a certain extent only. Hence the energy harvesting to power up the WSN nodes is a promising technology to fulfill this ever energy demand, but the protocols need to be redesigned for this scenario. Solar energy harvesting based MAC protocol which is adaptive to the changing weather conditions is designed in this paper for the smart agriculture applications. It is based on the multilayer and receiver-initiated process to improve network quality. It has shown the remarkable performance over the other energy harvesting based protocols in terms of ENO ratio, energy consumption and collision rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

wireless sensor network enables the regular monitoring of military, civil and other application. This paper proposes a new improved cluster algorithm of LEACH protocol which is intended to balance the energy consumption of the entire network and extend the lifetime of the network . In this paper we propose a leach protocol that works on network layer in OSI model. Leach protocol stands for Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy, a clustering-based protocol that utilizes randomized rotation of local cluster base stations (cluster-heads) to evenly distribute the energy load among the sensors in the network . LEACH is able to distribute energy dissipation evenly throughout the sensors, doubling the useful system lifetime for the networks we simulated.. It proides a better results than conventional protocols. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Internet of things (IoT) applications from home applications to military applications have been expanding day by day. Energy efficient routing schemes are vital for resource constraint wireless sensor networks (WSNs) and IoT. Clustering based routing scheme is one of the basic methods to extend the lifetime of WSN-based IoT. On the other hand, clustering is NP-hard problem and metaheuristic algorithms are suitable for clustering. In this paper, a new energy-efficient routing scheme is presented for IoT using two metaheuristic algorithms Harris hawk's optimization (HHO) and whale optimization algorithm (WOA). The selection of the cluster header (CH) is based on the WOA using various parameters such as residual energy of nodes, distance to neighbors, distance to sink. After clustering phase, an energy efficient routing scheme was proposed using the HHO algorithm. The simulation results in MATLAB environment justifies that the proposed protocol improves network life by 10%, average energy consumption by 15%, packet delivery rate (PDR) by 12%, throughput by 11% and number of alive nodes by 15%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The convergence of heterogeneous wireless sensor networks provides many benefits, including increased coverage, flexible load balancing capabilities, more efficient use of network resources, and the provision of additional data by different types of sensors, thus leading to improved customer service based on more complete information. However, despite these advances, the challenge of ensuring reliability and survivability remains due to low-cost sensor requirements and the inherent unreliability of the wireless environment. Integrating different sensor networks and unifying protocols naturally leads to the creation of a network with multiple sinks, necessitating the exploration of new approaches to rational reliability assurance. The failure of some sensors does not necessarily lead to a shutdown of the network, since other sensors can duplicate information and deliver data to sinks via an increased number of alternative routes. In this paper, the reliability indicator is defined as the probability that sinks can collect data from a given number of sensors. In this context, a dedicated reliability metric is introduced and examined for its effectiveness. This metric is computed using an algorithm rooted in the modified factoring method. Furthermore, we introduce a heuristic algorithm designed for optimal sink placement in wireless sensor networks to achieve the highest level of network reliability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The seamless integration of intelligent Internet of Things devices with conventional wireless sensor networks has revolutionized data communication for different applications, such as remote health monitoring, industrial monitoring, transportation, and smart agriculture. Efficient and reliable data routing is one of the major challenges in the Internet of Things network due to the heterogeneity of nodes. This paper presents a traffic-aware, cluster-based, and energy-efficient routing protocol that employs traffic-aware and cluster-based techniques to improve the data delivery in such networks. The proposed protocol divides the network into clusters where optimal cluster heads are selected among super and normal nodes based on their residual energies. The protocol considers multi-criteria attributes, i.e. energy, traffic load, and distance parameters to select the next hop for data delivery towards the base station. The performance of the proposed protocol is evaluated through the network simulator NS3.40. For different traffic rates, number of nodes, and different packet sizes, the proposed protocol outperformed LoRaWAN in terms of end-to-end packet delivery ratio, energy consumption, end-to-end delay, and network lifetime. For 100 nodes, the proposed protocol achieved a 13% improvement in packet delivery ratio, 10 ms improvement in delay, and 10 mJ improvement in average energy consumption over LoRaWAN. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy is very important parameter during the creation of a WSN infrastructure, and to support long lifetimes, energyefficient operation is a key technique. Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are known to be highly energy-constrained and each network's lifetime has a strong dependence on the node's battery capacity. As such, the network lifetime has been a critical concern in WSN research. While numerous energyefficient protocols have been proposed to prolong the network lifetime. Energy-efficient sensor state planning consists i finding an optimal assignment of states to sensors in order to maximize network lifetime. Network lifetime and energy consumption analysis for cluster-based wireless sensor networks based upon LEACH protocol for periodic monitoring applications induce unbalanced energy consumption among sensor nodes and hence affect the network lifetime when compared with the results obtained from the analytical model of this protocol. This highlights the need for an adaptive clustering protocol that can increase the network lifetime by further balancing the energy consumption among sensor nodes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to enhance the ability of wireless sensor networks to resist various security threats and reduce the limitations caused by the characteristics of wireless sensor networks and sensor nodes, this paper proposes a secure routing protocol for wireless sensor networks based on trust management. Combined with the relevant parameters of wireless sensor network, the simulation experiment is carried out with MATLAB. Aiming at the trust management part of the wireless sensor network security protocol proposed in this paper, the malicious attack environment such as sensor node attributes is simulated to verify the resistance of this model to relevant malicious attacks. For the trust management-based wireless sensor network security routing protocol proposed in this paper, the model included in the protocol is compared to the existing security routing model, combining the characteristics of average simulation transmission, network life, and average routing update time. Experiments show that the model has better routing performance and has improved by an average of about 20%. We offer a new solution to solve the problem of wireless routing security. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Underwater wireless sensor networks are gaining popularity since supporting a broad range of applications, both military and civilian. Wireless acoustics is the most widespread technology adopted in underwater networks, the realization of which must face several challenges induced by channel propagation like signal attenuation, multipath and latency. In order to address such issues, the attention of researchers has recently focused on the concept of cooperative communication and networking, borrowed from terrestrial systems and to be conveniently recast in the underwater scenario. In this paper, we present a comprehensive literature review about cooperative underwater wireless sensor networks, investigating how nodes cooperation can be exploited at the different levels of the network protocol stack. Specifically, we review the diversity techniques employable at the physical layer, error and medium access control link layer protocols, and routing strategies defined at the network layer. We also provide numerical results and performance comparisons among the most widespread approaches. Finally, we present the current and future trends in cooperative underwater networks, considering the use of machine learning algorithms to efficiently manage the different aspects of nodes cooperation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Irrigation & Drainage is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper presents the implementation of a synchronous Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) framework utilizing wireless, low-cost, and off-the-shelf components. Vibration-based condition monitoring plays a crucial role in assessing the reliability of structural systems by detecting damage through changes in vibration parameters. The adoption of low-cost Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) sensors in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) has gained traction, emphasizing the need for precise time synchronization to schedule wake-up times of multiple sensor nodes for data collection. To address this challenge, our proposed method introduces a TCP/IP socket programming-based mimic broadcasting mechanism and a scalable sensing network controlled by a central gateway, leveraging the Raspberry Pi Python platform. The system operates using Internet of Things (IoT) concepts and adopts a star topology, where a packet is transmitted from the gateway to initiate measurements simultaneously on multiple sensor nodes. The sensor node comprises a MEMS accelerometer, a real time clock DS3231 module and Raspberry Pi Zero 2W (RPi0-2W), while the gateway employs a Raspberry Pi 4 (RPi4). To ensure accurate time synchronization, all Pi0-2W nodes were configured as Network Time Protocol (NTP) clients, synchronizing with an RPi4 server using chrony, the reliable implementation of the NTP. Through experimental evaluations, the system demonstrates its effectiveness and reliability in achieving initial time synchronization. This study addresses the challenge of achieving precise time alignment between sensor nodes through the utilization of the Dynamic Time Wrapping (DTW) method for Frequency Domain Decomposition (FDD) applications. The contribution of this research significantly enhances the field by improving the accuracy and reliability of time-aligned measurements, with a specific focus on utilizing low-cost sensors. By developing a practical and cost-effective SHM framework, this work advances the accessibility and scalability of structural health monitoring solutions, facilitating more widespread adoption and implementation in various engineering applications [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Wireless sensor network (WSN) is frequently being used for increasing the data collection and monitoring critical parameters. Major challenge in WSN design is achieving the better energy efficiency and latency considering the dynamic sink location. Lots of research has been done for improving the performance of WSN systems in wide range of applications. Prime goal of this paper is to evaluate the performance of WSN routing under the grid‐based dynamic sink locations. Later the performance of various existing critical protocols is compared to route data over centralized server. Various applications of WSNs are tabulated along with the sensor utilization. The paper contributed in three passes. Initial contribution of this research is to identify the issues and limitations of present WSN communication technologies. The paper contributed to present a case study to discover the implications of dynamic sink routing for building protocol to extend network's lifetime. The effectiveness of several clustering‐based WSN routing algorithms is first compared in this paper. After that, the protocol with the longest network life is put to the test under a grid‐based dynamic sink routing scenario. The significance of clustering‐based protocols for improving lifetime of the network is evaluated as case study. The clustering‐based energy efficient protocol like low energy adaptive clustering hierarchy (LEACH) and its different variants, PEGASIS, SEP, DEC, their variants, and so on, are compared in this paper. Various performance metrics like network delays, throughput, latency, energy consumption and network lifetime are defined for studying routing protocols. Significance of dynamic sink locations performance is evaluated for Enhanced Distributed Energy Efficient Clustering (EDEEC) protocol. Overall paper covers and reviewed many critical design aspects for WSN networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP) is one of the most emerging messaging protocols that have successfully fulfilled the need of the lightweight features required to handle communication between constrained devices in IoT environment. However, these devices are generating a huge amount of messages and notifications which cause the network congestion. Then, the challenge addressed in this paper; consists of designing a suitable congestion control mechanism for CoAP that ensures a safe network operation while keeping the use of network resources efficiently. To do so, this paper presents an improved congestion control algorithm for the estimation of a Retransmission Time Out (RTO) value to use in each transaction based on the packet loss ratio and the Round-Trip Time RTT of the previous transmission. A comprehensive analysis and evaluation of simulated results show that the proposed mechanism can appropriately achieve higher performance compared to the basic CoAP congestion control, TCP and TCP/ Linux. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An introduction is presented in which the editor discusses various topics withing the issue including articles on Cluster-Based Wireless sensor networks (WSN), ‘‘Weighted Hyperbolic DV-Hop Positioning Node Localization Algorithm in WSNs", and ‘‘A Low Duty Cycle MAC Protocol for Directional WSNs."

The advancement of the Internet of Things (IoT) has tremendously influenced many fields of human life. The Internet of Medical Things, Internet of Flying Things, Internet of Floating Things and Internet of Autonomous Things are recent evolution of IoT. The protocols used in all forms of IoT are critical during the execution demanding formal verification methods to ensure correctness. However, the most challenging part of formal verification is abstracting the system under test, making many systems unverified. Formal protocol verification is essential for detecting specification and design flaws that go undetected and corrected during the testing phase. This paper proposes novel methods for abstracting communication patterns for IoT protocols. Message broadcasts, periodic message advertisements, topology encoding, and topology change are examples of communication patterns. An attempt is made to model these patterns using pi-calculus and PROMELA. Finally, the trickle, a wireless sensor network dissemination protocol, has been modelled using pi-calculus and PROMELA. The Spin model checker verifies design flaws, such as deadlocks and non-progress cycles. The verification results ensure that there are no deadlocks or non-progress loops. The protocol is statically verified for message transmission semantics. The analysis revealed that the protocol could only guarantee message transmission for lossy connections if an alternative route covers all other nodes. The empirical results and theorem show that the abstraction mechanism can be directly utilised for automated and theoretical verification. Researchers can use the abstraction framework described in this paper to create validation models for static and automated verification of existing and new IoT protocols. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leach (low energy adaptive clustering hierarchy) algorithm is a self-clustering topology algorithm. Its execution process is cyclical. Each cycle is divided into two phases: cluster building phase and stable data communication phase. In the stage of cluster building, the adjacent nodes cluster dynamically and randomly generate cluster heads. In the data communication phase, the nodes in the cluster send the data to the cluster head, and the cluster head performs data fusion and sends the results to the aggregation node. Because the cluster head needs to complete data fusion, communication with the convergence node and other works, the energy consumption is large. Leach algorithm can ensure that each node acts as cluster head with equal probability, so that the nodes in the network consume energy relatively evenly. The basic idea of Leach algorithm is to randomly select cluster head nodes in a circular way. It evenly distributes the energy load of the whole network to each sensor node in the network. It can reduce network energy consumption and improve network life cycle. Leach repeatedly performs cluster refactoring during its operation. This paper studies the parameter detection of wireless sensor network based on Leach algorithm on the on-chip embedded debugging system. Because the classical low-power adaptive clustering layered protocol (Leach) has the problem of energy imbalance and short node life cycle, this paper uses embedded debugging technology based on Leach algorithm and the residual energy and position of nodes in wireless sensor networks were tested for research. This Leach algorithm uses the concept of wheel. Each round consists of two phases: initialization and stabilization. In the initialization stage, each node generates a random number between 0 and 1. If the random number generated by a node is less than the set threshold T (n), the node publishes a message that it is a cluster head. Through the research on the parameter detection, the simulation results show that the research in this paper has good feasibility and rationality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless sensor networks (WSN) are formed by hundreds and thousands of small sensors, communicating between themselves by means of wireless communication. Due to large scale of these networks and expensive deployment, simulation is the method of choice in many projects that study and analyze the performance of a sensor network. A great number of simulators for WSN have been developed and presented in the open literature, and it is often very difficult to decide which simulator to choose as the most appropriate for different purposes. Although there are some papers that compare different WSN simulators, an exhaustive survey and classification of simulators does not exist at the moment. In this paper, we will review 20 representative simulators. Then, we will identify their features, such as GUI, supported WSN models, network protocols, sealability, etc. Based on the analysis of these characteristics and the suitability for specific domains of use, simulators are classified into three major domains of use: education, research, and industrial development and design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This book contains the successfully published submissions [[1], [3], [5]] to a Special Issue of I Symmetry i on the subject area of "Optimization and Applications of Modern Wireless Networks and Symmetry". This Special Issue covers channel coding, modulation, and network protocol of the recent advances in modern communications. In the second paper, entitled "A CNN-MPSK Demodulation Architecture with Ultra-Light Weight and Low-Complexity for Communications", B. Wang et al. propose a generic architecture for MPSK demodulation, referred to as CNN-MPSK, from convolutional neural networks (CNNs). [Extracted from the article]

Summary The cluster networking protocols are the roots that embed intelligent decision‐making and enhance the lifespan of wireless sensor networks (WSNs). Wireless sensors with limited capabilities face several challenges due to the heterogeneous application environments. Especially, the mobility‐incorporated sensors in most situations trouble the cluster network's robustness. Many cluster networking protocols have been presented in the past to enhance the network lifespan and data delivery ratio. However, they lack a dedicated and efficient mechanism for mobility assistance, an adequate cluster management process and cluster head selection criteria. To overcome these issues and for the uniform energy load distribution, we propose a mobility‐compatible cache controlled cluster networking protocol (MC‐CCCNP) in this paper. It is an energy‐efficient cluster networking protocol that supports sensor movement. Network resource management and routing are controlled distributively by an optimal number of cache nodes. It defines a new strategy for cache node deployment based on neighbour density as well as a weight formula for cluster head selection and cluster formation based on the residual energy, the distance to the base station and the node velocity. It also includes techniques for detaching and reconnecting a mobile node to an appropriate cluster cache if it crosses the cluster boundary. We simulate and compare the performance of our protocol with the centralised energy‐efficient clustering routing, energy‐efficient mobility‐based cluster head selection protocol and dual tier cluster‐based routing protocols over different network configurations with varying mobility, scalability and heterogeneity. The MC‐CCCNP showed remarkable improvements in energy utilisation uniformity and energy consumption. With the improved network lifespan, it also maintains a higher data throughput rate of 95% or more in almost all network configurations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless sensor networks are penetrating our daily lives, and they are starting to be deployed even in an industrial environment. The research on such industrial wireless sensor networks (IWSNs) considers more stringent requirements of robustness, reliability, and timeliness in each network layer. This Special Issue presents the recent research result on industrial wireless sensor networks. Each paper in the special issue has unique contributions in the advancements of industrial wireless sensor network research and we expect each paper to promote the relevant research and the deployment of IWSNs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

IPv6 Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks (RPL) is the standard network layer protocol for achieving efficient routing in IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks (6LoWPAN). Resource-constrained and non-tamper resistant nature of smart sensor nodes makes RPL protocol susceptible to different threats. An attacker may use insider or outsider attack strategy to perform Denial-of-Service (DoS) attacks against RPL based networks. Security and Privacy risks associated with RPL protocol may limit its global adoption and worldwide acceptance. A proper investigation of RPL specific attacks and their impacts on an underlying network needs to be done. In this paper, we present and investigate one of the catastrophic attacks named as a copycat attack, a type of replay based DoS attack against the RPL protocol. An in-depth experimental study for analyzing the impacts of the copycat attack on RPL has been done. The experimental results show that the copycat attack can significantly degrade network performance in terms of packet delivery ratio, average end-to-end delay, and average power consumption. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first paper that extensively studies the impact of RPL specific replay mechanism based DoS attack on 6LoWPAN networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large-scale wireless sensor networks (LSWSNs) are currently one of the most influential technologies and have been widely used in industry, medical, and environmental monitoring fields. The LSWSNs are composed of many tiny sensor nodes. These nodes are arbitrarily distributed in a certain area for data collection, and they have limited energy consumption, storage capabilities, and communication capabilities. Due to limited sensor resources, traditional network protocols cannot be directly applied to LSWSNs. Therefore, the issue of maximizing the LSWSNs' lifetime by working with duty cycle design algorithm has been extensively studied in this paper. Encouraged by annealing algorithm, this work provides a new elite adaptive simulated annealing (EASA) algorithm to prolong LSWSNs' lifetime. We then present a sensor duty cycle models, which can make sure the full coverage of the monitoring targets and prolong the network lifetime as much as possible. Simulation results indicate that the network lifetime of EASA algorithm is 21.95% longer than that of genetic algorithm (GA) and 28.33% longer than that of particle swarm algorithm (PSO). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Link quality prediction is a fundamental component of the wireless network protocols and is essential for routing protocols in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). Effective link quality prediction can select high-quality links for communication and improve the reliability of data transmission. In order to improve the accuracy of the link quality prediction model and reduce the model complexity, the link quality prediction model based on the light gradient boosting machine (LightGBM-LQP) is proposed in this paper. Specifically, agglomerative hierarchical clustering and manual division are combined to grade the link quality and obtain the labels of samples. Then, light gradient boosting machine (LightGBM) classification algorithm and Focal Loss are used to estimate the link quality grades. In order to reduce the impact of data imbalance, Borderline-SMOTE is employed to oversample the minority link quality samples. Finally, LightGBM-LQP predicts link quality grade at the next moment with historical link quality information. The experimental results on data collected from a real-world WSNs show that the proposed model has better prediction accuracy and shorter predicting time compared to related models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Przegląd Elektrotechniczny is the property of Przeglad Elektrotechniczny and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Internet of Things (IoT) is a smart technology that allows communication between humans and all things that contain sensors, actuators, embedded electronics, software, or storage via the internet. As a result, IoT should be seen as a part of the overall Internet of the future, which is likely to be very different from what we are using today. Despite the advantages of IoT, energy efficiency is still considered one of the main challenges in IoT. There are many algorithms that have been proposed to solve the energy efficiency problem. Unfortunately, most of them have some drawbacks. As a result, an Enhanced Threshold Sensitive Distributed Energy-Efficient Clustering routing protocol (ETSDEEC) for WSN-based IoT was proposed in this paper. Hard and soft thresholds are used in the proposed protocol to determine whether nodes are allowed to send their sensed data. From the simulation, we found that the proposed ETSDEEC protocol performs better than EDEEC and TDEEC protocols in terms of network lifetime, energy dissipationand throughput. It is also found that the proposed ETSDEEC can improve the lifetime by 59.8% in comparison to EDEEC and about 37.7% in comparison to TDEEC protocols. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The simultaneous advances in the Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial intelligence (AI) and Robotics is going to revolutionize our world in the near future. In recent years, LoRa (Long Range) wireless powered by LoRaWAN (LoRa Wide Area Network) protocol has attracted the attention of researchers for numerous applications in the IoT domain. LoRa is a low power, unlicensed Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) band-equipped wireless technology that utilizes a wide area network protocol, i.e., LoRaWAN, to incorporate itself into the network infrastructure. In this paper, we have evaluated the LoRaWAN communication protocol for the implementation of the IoT (Internet of Things) nodes’ communication in a forest scenario. The outdoor performance of LoRa wireless in LoRaWAN, i.e., the physical layer, has been evaluated in the forest area of Kashirampur Uttarakhand, India. Hence, the present paper aims towards analyzing the performance level of the LoRaWAN technology by observing the changes in Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR), Packet Reception Ratio (PRR) and Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI), with respect to the distance between IoT nodes. The article focuses on estimating network lifetime for a specific set of LoRa configuration parameters, hardware selection and power constraints. From the experimental results, it has been observed that transmissions can propagate to a distance of 300 m in the forest environment, while consuming approx. 63% less energy for spreading factor 7 at 2 dBm, without incurring significant packet loss with PRR greater than 80%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

APTEEN is a typical routing protocol for wireless sensor networks, but when clustering, cluster heads are randomly selected, which makes it easy to select nodes with low residual energy as cluster heads, thus forming network holes. At the same time, in multi hop transmission, the cluster head near the sink node is overloaded due to forwarding a large amount of data. Aiming at these problems, this paper introduces PSO algorithm and proposes ADCH-EPE-APTEEN routing protocol. In order to make the particle swarm optimization algorithm more suitable for routing protocol, this paper first proposes DCA-PSO based on particle swarm optimization algorithm. DCA-PSO uses the classification adaptive change inertia weight for different states of particles in the optimization process. At the same time, dynamic learning factor is used to improve the influence of particle experience and other particle experience on convergence speed and to improve the optimization accuracy and speed of the algorithm. Secondly, when APTEEN routing protocol is networked, the cluster head is selected by DCA-PSO, in which the residual energy of nodes, the location of nodes, and the energy distribution around nodes are fully taken into consideration. Thirdly, considering the distance between nodes and the sink node, the residual energy and the energy distribution around nodes, a front area is set up in the cluster located in the upper half and the assistant cluster head is selected in the front area through the DCA-PSO algorithm. The simulation results show that the DCA-PSO algorithm can significantly improve the search speed and precision compared with the PSO algorithm. Compared with APTEEN routing protocol, the ADCH-EPE-APTEEN routing protocol can reduce the network energy consumption rate and extend network lifetime by 173%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) have tight energy constraints than MANET because of limited energy capacity. So the design principles of conventional networks are not appropriate for WSNs. It needs innovative perspective to arrive at solutions for its own kind of problems. Hierarchical architecture based on clustering suits well due to the uniqueness of WSNs. Even though clustering involves some overhead, its effect on the behavior of WSN is tremendous. In this paper, a new Hybrid Layering with Selective Cluster Rotation (HUCSR) protocol for the energy efficient operation of WSN has been designed. In this protocol, the cluster head rotation is done selectively. Instead of rotating it in all clusters of the WSN scenario, rotation is done based on whether it has been actively participated in data handling. Simulation results show a slight increase in the lifetime of the WSN. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless sensor network establishes a network with randomly distributed sensor devices that are connected together through some types of wireless communication networks. Such sensors are responsible for recognizing the physical or environmental conditions for multi-purpose usability and ease of deployment. This network has some limitations such as prone to network failure, and limited power and capacity of sensor devices. Several routing strategies have been originated by the researchers to improve many applications for such a network. Among the routing techniques, the clustering algorithm can increase the life span and efficiency of the network. The main feature of a cluster-based network is to minimize energy dissipation and delay of the system. This paper investigates the performance of two cluster-based routing protocols namely homogeneous Energy-Aware Multi-Hop Multi-Path Hierarchical (EAMMH), and Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) routing strategies for homogeneous nodes, sink nodes, dead nodes and other common scenarios. In this research paper, we observe that LEACH works better for small networks where there is a small number of nodes, while EAMMH works better for larger networks consisting of a large number of nodes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is an aggregation of sensor nodes which are remotely deployed in large numbers and operate the environmental condition and have limited energy resource. In most of the hierarchical routing protocols, the cluster head (CH) selection is on the basis of random probability equation. There is a scope to reduce the energy dissipation by improving CH selection procedure. This research paper proposed a multi hop hierarchical routing protocol called Energy Efficient - Adaptive Periodic Threshold Sensitive Protocol (EE-APTSP), and makes use of evolutionary algorithm for improving cluster head selection of routing protocol in the sensor networks. The concept of relay node is introduced, which acts as an intermediary between Cluster Head (CH) and Base Station (BS) to ease the communication between the CH and BS. The simulation results obtained supports that our proposed algorithm is efficient in terms of network lifetime. APTSP based theory that can be used to create faster, smaller, and more energetic and efficient sensitive threshold. Network Simulator (NS2) is used to implement and test the proposed system. The proposed periodic sensitive protocol provides more energy with secured transmission, further it reduces routing overhead, improves packet delivery ratio and throughput. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Internet of Things (IoT) is the next big challenge for the research community where the IPv6 over low power wireless personal area network (6LoWPAN) protocol stack is a key part of the IoT. Recently, the IETF ROLL and 6LoWPAN working groups have developed new IP based protocols for 6LoWPAN networks to alleviate the challenges of connecting low memory, limited processing capability, and constrained power supply sensor nodes to the Internet. In 6LoWPAN networks, heavy network traffic causes congestion which significantly degrades network performance and impacts on quality of service aspects such as throughput, latency, energy consumption, reliability, and packet delivery. In this paper, we overview the protocol stack of 6LoWPAN networks and summarize a set of its protocols and standards. Also, we review and compare a number of popular congestion control mechanisms in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) and classify them into traffic control, resource control, and hybrid algorithms based on the congestion control strategy used. We present a comparative review of all existing congestion control approaches in 6LoWPAN networks. This paper highlights and discusses the differences between congestion control mechanisms for WSNs and 6LoWPAN networks as well as explaining the suitability and validity of WSN congestion control schemes for 6LoWPAN networks. Finally, this paper gives some potential directions for designing a novel congestion control protocol, which supports the IoT application requirements, in future work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we consider multichannel ALOHA for a wireless sensor network (WSN), where sensors’ signals are correlated. The impact of the number of channels on the length of information that an access point (AP) can collect is investigated. Under a certain distributed signal source model, in order for the AP to have a sufficiently long length of information, we show that the number of channels is to be larger than the square of the average number of active nodes. Thus, when the number of channels is limited, we need to use re-transmissions. To this end, we propose an adaptive transmission approach that can effectively exploit the correlation between the collected signals at the AP and nodes’ signals using Slepian–Wolf coding to shorten the total transmission time, which results in a more energy efficient WSN. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the current research on data query for two-tiered WSN, the privacy-preservation range query is one of the hotspots. However, there are some problems in the existing researches in two-tiered wireless sensor networks such as high computational and communication costs for security comparison items and high energy consumption of sensing nodes. In this paper, a privacy-preservation range query protocol based on the integration reversal 0-1 encoding with Bloom filter is researched and designed. In the sensing data submission stage, the optimized reversal 0-1 encoding, HMAC algorithm, AES encryption algorithm and variable-length Bloom filter are used for generating the maximum–minimum comparison encoding and constructing a shorter verification index chain to reduce computational and communication costs of sensing nodes; in the private data range query stage, the base station uses the HMAC algorithm to convert the plaintext query range into the ciphertext query range and sends it to the storage node. In the storage node, the bitmap encoding information of the verification index chain is calculated with the comparison rule of the reversal 0-1 encoding and it is returned to the base station together with the verification index chain and the data ciphertext that compliance with the query rule; in the data integrity verification stage, the integrity of the query results using the verification index chain and bitmap encoding is verified at the base station. In the experimental section, the Cortex-M4 development board equipped with the Alios-Things operating system as sensing node and the Cortex-A9 development board equipped with the Linux operating system as storage node are implemented in this protocol, which is compared with the existing protocols in three aspects: the number of data collected in each cycle, the length of data and the number of data dimensions. The experimental results show that the energy consumption of this protocol is lower under the same experimental environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), the consumption of energy is high due to the data transmission in the sensing region. The Optimized Distributed Voronoi-based Collaboration (ODVOC) optimizes data delivery and it suffers from huge energy consumption. To overcome this drawback, a data aggregation scheme is introduced to expand the lifetime of the network and to minimize the energy utilization. Data aggregation is a significant approach that preserves the unwanted usage of energy during data transmission. In this paper, the Optimized Distributed Voronoi-based Cooperation scheme with Energy-aware Dual-path Geographic Routing (DAOHS-ODVOC-EDGR) is proposed which incorporates the polydisperse aggregation scheme and it aggregates the indispensable data in the intermediary nodes. The effective data aggregation is achieved by the estimation of the waiting time of the data at every intermediary node and cost function that is used for electing the next-hop node. In the proposed protocol, the buffer value of every node is divided to retain diversified kinds of flow for effective and fair delivery of data. The rate of transmission at the source and intermediary node is altered during the congestion. The proposed DAOHS- ODVOC-EDGR protocol is tested via simulation scheme. The result of the simulation exposes that DAOHS-ODVOC-EDGR outperforms the TESDA and DVOC protocol in terms of network lifetime, energy efficiency, and hop count delay. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Acoustic energy mapping provides the functionality to obtain characteristics of acoustic sources, as: presence, localization, type and trajectory of sound sources. Several beamforming-based techniques can be used for this purpose. However, they rely on the difference of arrival times of the signal at each capture node (or microphone), so it is of major importance to have synchronized multi-channel recordings. A Wireless Acoustic Sensor Network (WASN) can be very practical to install when used for mapping the acoustic energy of a given acoustic environment. However, they are known for having low synchronization between the recordings from each node. The objective of this paper is to characterize the impact of current popular synchronization methodologies as part of the WASN to capture reliable data to be used for acoustic energy mapping. The two evaluated synchronization protocols are: Network Time Protocol (NTP) y Precision Time Protocol (PTP). Additionally, three different audio capture methodologies were proposed for the WASN to capture the acoustic signal: two of them, recording the data locally and one sending the data through a local wireless network. As a real-life evaluation scenario, a WASN was built using nodes conformed by a Raspberry Pi 4B+ with a single MEMS microphone. Experimental results demonstrate that the most reliable methodology is using the PTP synchronization protocol and audio recording locally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quality of Service (QoS) is the rate of complete performance of a service, such as computer networking or services in the area of cloud computing. Quality of Service is an important factor and point of consideration in the development of cross layered frameworks or cross layered architectures. With the increase in use of cross layered technology QoS is a highly critical parameter which has been subject to vast amounts of research. Data aggregation is one of the most important techniques to increase bandwidth utilization and energy efficiency in WSNs (wireless sensor networks). There are a lot of research activities being carried out in this field, but a majority of them have a disadvantage that they cannot meet practical requirements in an optimal manner, such as the requirements of latency and heterogeneity of application data. Providing Quality of Service (QoS) in an efficient manner is highly important for some networks (WSNs), since they are required to provide present-time services like audio, video, and VoIP which is nothing but Voice Over IP other than the conventional data service approach. Many solutions have been proposed to provide soft QoS over networks that are wireless and are multihop from other layers in the pack of network protocols. Somehow, the concepts of layers were primarily created for networks which are wired, and wireless networks that are multihop oppose stricter layer based design because of their varying nature, architecture which are infra structure less & time-varied unstable connection topology and links. The idea of cross-layered design is premised on the architecture where several layers can exchange content or information in order to enhance the complete performance of the network. Accurate results could be obtained by optimizations in cross-layered that brought about considerable research in this area. This paper aims to research the current works on the cross-layer approach for QoS support in the realm of wireless networks which are multihop. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A natural basis for the detection of a wireless random reactive jammer (RRJ) is the perceived violation by the detector [typically located at the access point (AP)] of the carrier sensing protocol underpinning many wireless random access protocols (e.g., Wi-Fi). Specifically, when the wireless medium is perceived by a station to be busy, a carrier sensing compliant station will avoid transmission, while an RRJ station will often initiate transmission. However, hidden terminals (HTs), i.e., activity detected by the AP but not by the sensing station, complicate the use of carrier sensing as the basis for RRJ detection since they provide plausible deniability to a station suspected of being an RRJ. The RRJ has the dual objectives of avoiding detection and effectively disrupting communication, but there is an inherent performance tradeoff between these two objectives. In this paper, we capture the behavior of both the RRJ and the compliant stations via a parsimonious Markov chain model and pose the detection problem using the framework of the Markov chain hypothesis testing. Our analysis yields the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) of the detector and the optimized behavior of the RRJ. While there has been extensive work in the literature on jamming detection, our innovation lies in leveraging carrier sensing as a natural and effective basis for detection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless sensor network contains a huge volume of sensors that are capable of observing environmental data and conveying that information to the base station. The zone routing is a way to group sensors into multiple clusters in sensing field. In general, each zone has a single co-ordinator that operates as a zone head and accountable to collect the data from all sensors inside the zone and then forward it to the base station. Clustering and energy efficient path construction to base station is a major issue in sensor networks. This paper concentrates on clustering the sensing field into zones and further splitting it into zone quadrants to maximize the energy efficiency of sensor nodes with minimum delay transmission time. An "Energy Minimized optimal zone selection of Sensor Networks to build the Data Path" protocol is proposed in this paper to minimize the load on zone heads by using the zone coordinators to gather the information from different quadrants of zone. Distance-based communication with the minimum hop is opted to minimize the energy cost. A critical evaluation is carried out on the proposed protocol in the context of total energy consumption of network and average energy consumed per node, lifetime of the Network, delay in reception of packet and packet delivery ratio. The results of our research work and analyzed and benchmarked against similar protocols using Network Simulator 2. The outcome of this research is a reduced delay in packet processing with low energy consumption which significantly increases lifetime of sensor network. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a survey on the MAC and network layer of Wireless Sensor Networks. Performance requirements of the MAC layer are explored. MAC layer protocols for battery-powered networks and energy harvesting-based networks are discussed and compared. A detailed dis- cussion on design constraints and classification of routing protocols is presented. Several routing protocols are compared in terms of such parameters as: energy consumption, scalability, network lifetime and mobility. Problems that require future research are presented. The cross-layer approach for WSNs is also surveyed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In present days, the utilization of mobile edge computing (MEC) and Internet of Things (IoT) in mobile networks offers a bottleneck in the evolving technological requirements. Wireless Sensors Network (WSN) become an important component of the IoT and is the major source of big data. In IoT enabled WSN, a massive amount of data collection generated from a resource-limited network is a tedious process, posing several challenging issues. Traditional networking protocols offer unfeasible mechanisms for large-scaled networks and might be applied to IoT platform without any modifications. Information-Centric Networking (ICN) is a revolutionary archetype which that can resolve those big data gathering challenges. Employing the ICN architecture for resource-limited WSN enabled IoT networks may additionally enhance the data access mechanism, reliability challenges in case of a mobility event, and maximum delay under multihop communication. In this view, this paper proposes an IoT enabled cluster based routing (CBR) protocol for information centric wireless sensor networks (ICWSN), named CBR-ICWSN. The proposed model undergoes a black widow optimization (BWO) based clustering technique to select the optimal set of cluster heads (CHs) effectively. Besides, the CBR-ICWSN technique involves an oppositional artificial bee colony (OABC) based routing process for optimal selection of paths. A series of simulations take place to verify the performance of the CBR-ICWSN technique and the results are examined under several aspects. The experimental outcome of the CBR-ICWSN technique has outperformed the compared methods interms of network lifetime and energy efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANET) is derived from Mobile ad hoc networks (MANET) which provide a communications as on unstructured creation of a wireless network for data exchange to the domain of vehicles. The comparative survey of routing protocols in VANET is making main role in wireless network, important and required for Intelligent Transport System (ITS) ITS. This paper we discuss the nature work of various protocols and flaws different routing protocols for vehicular ad hoc networks. It explores the motivation behind the designed, and traces the development of these routing protocols. This paper discusses the table driven and on demand mechanisms. Through this paper we discussed working behaviour of wireless network protocols and disadvantages of existing protocols [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quality of information (QoI) provides a context-dependent measure of the utility that a network delivers to its users by incorporating non-traditional information attributes. Quickly and easily predicting performance and limitations of a network using QoI metrics is a valuable tool for network design. Even more useful is an understanding of how network components like topology, bandwidth, and protocols, impact these limitations. In this paper, we develop a QoI-based framework that can provide accurate estimates for limitations on network size and achievable QoI requirements, focusing on completeness and timeliness. We extend this framework to model competing flows and data loads as random variables to capture the stochastic nature of real networks. We show that our framework can provide a characterization of delays for satisfied queries to further analyze performance when some late arrivals are acceptable. Analysis shows that the large tradeoffs exist between network parameters, such as QoI requirements, topology, and network size. Simulation results also provide evidence that the developed framework can estimate network limits and delays with high accuracy. Finally, this paper also introduces scalably feasible QoI regions, which provide upper bounds on QoI requirements that can be supported for certain network applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the time triggered hybrid scheduler (TTH) is implemented in the distributed real time embedded systems along with the operation of dynamic frequency scaling (DFS) since it overcomes the problem of time triggered cooperative scheduler (TTC) for distributed systems and also the decreases the power consumption. This scheduler is implemented along with the token ring network protocol for the communication scheduling. In hard real time systems, ideally, no deadline may ever be missed and hence the co-operative and pre-emptive are combined in this paper to achieve optimum efficiency. DFS is used to provide robustness to the network and also reduces the power utilization. This TTH scheduler is more advantageous than TTC scheduler in distributed system, since long task problem can be overcome by means of this algorithm. The model is simulated using the TORSCHE toolbox of the MATLAB. Some of the applications of this scheduling are data acquisition and sampling in wireless sensor networks, control system engineering, patient monitoring using wireless sensor networking and so on. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A distinct security protocol is necessary for the exponential growth in intelligent edge devices. In particular, the autonomous devices need to address significant security concern to function smoothly in the high market demand. Nevertheless, exponential increase in the connected devices has made cloud networks more complex and suffer from information processing delay. Therefore, the goal of this work is to design a novel server-less mutual authentication protocol for the edge networks. The aim is to demonstrate an autonomous mutual authentication amongst the connected smart devices within the edge networks. The solution addresses applications of autonomous cars, smart things, and Internet of Things (IoT) devices in the edge or wireless sensor networks (WSN), etc. In this paper, the design proposes use of a public-key system, octet-based balanced-tree transitions, challenge–response mechanism, device unique ID (UID), pseudo-random number generator (PRNG), time-stamps, and event specific session keys. Ultimately, server-less design requires less infrastructure and avoids several types of network-based communication attacks, e.g., impersonating, Man in the middle (MITM), IoT-DDOS, etc. Additionally, the system overhead is eliminated by no secret key requirements. The results provide sufficient evidence about the protocol market competitiveness and demonstrate better benchmark comparison results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) contain sensor nodes that sense the data and then transfer them to the sink node or base station. Sensor nodes are operationalized through limited-power batteries. Therefore, improvement in energy consumption becomes critical in UWSNs. Data forwarding through the nearest sensor node to the sink or base station reduces the network's reliability and stability because it creates a hotspot and drains the energy early. In this paper, we propose the cooperative energy-efficient routing (CEER) protocol to increase the network lifetime and acquire a reliable network. We use the sink mobility scheme to reduce energy consumption by eliminating the hotspot issue. We have divided the area into multiple sections for better deployment and deployed the sink nodes in each area. Sensor nodes generate the data and send it to the sink nodes to reduce energy consumption. We have also used the cooperative technique to achieve reliability in the network. Based on simulation results, the proposed scheme performed better than existing routing protocols in terms of packet delivery ratio (PDR), energy consumption, transmission loss, and end-to-end delay. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have turned into a leading area of research over the course of the last few decades as they have been employed in various application domains. Since traditional approaches configure WSNs statically, their dynamic reconfiguration represents a difficult challenge. To address this challenge, clustering techniques can be integrated into WSNs. In the present paper, we present a comprehensive review of some of the recently proposed clustering protocols (from the year 2003 to 2021) that have been applied to WSNs. In this survey, clustering algorithms are categorized into four classes, namely (1) cluster-based protocols for homogeneous nodes, (2) cluster-based protocols for heterogeneous nodes, (3) clustering protocols based on fuzzy logic methods, and (4) clustering protocols based on heuristic methods. This categorization was carried out based on these protocols' network organization as well as the techniques used for managing the procedures of clustering. For the purpose of evaluating the efficiency of these protocols, we take into account features, performance as well as clustering methodologies as the main parameters used in the comparison of these four categories of clustering approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Internet of Things (IoT) is a recent paradigm to improve human lifestyle. Nowadays, number devices are connected to the Internet drastically. Thus, the people can control and monitor the physical things in real-time without delay. The IoT plays a vital role in all kind of fields in our world such as agriculture, livestock, transport, and healthcare, grid system, connected home, elderly people carrying system, cypher physical system, retail, and intelligent systems. In IoT energy conservation is a challenging task, as the devices are made up of low-cost and low-power sensing devices and local processing. IoT networks have significant challenges in two areas: network lifespan and energy usage. Therefore, the clustering is a right choice to prolong the energy in the network. In LEACH clustering protocol, sometimes the same node acts as CH again and again probabilistically. To overcome these issues, this paper proposes the Energy-Aware Cluster-based Routing (EACRLEACH) protocol in WSN based IoT. The Cluster Head (CH) selection is a crucial task in clustering protocol inWSN based IoT. In EACR-LEACH, the CH is selected by using the routing metrics, Residual Energy (RER), Number of Neighbors (NoN), Distance between Sensor Node and Sink (Distance) and Number of Time Node Act as CH (NTNACH). An extensive simulation is conducted on MATLAB 2019a. The accomplishment of EACR-LEACH is compared to LEACH and SE-LEACH. The proposed EACR-LEACH protocol extends the network's lifetime by 4%-8% and boosts throughput by 16%-24%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]