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The states have to use public funds. It is a fundamental problem how can a state acquire money for fulfilling its obligations and tasks and how can it spend these funds properly. Basically two sides can be separated and scrutinized: the expenditures and the revenues. During the historical development the monarchs had fundamentally the power to make decisions in fiscal questions: they could prescribe taxes (contributions) and spend money without any restriction, public finances and the private wealth (expenditures) of the ruler weren't separated. Later the orders and the parliaments vindicated different rights to restrict the power of the monarchs: they could offer the taxes and since than the rulers couldn't impose taxes without their contributions. These very important restrictions appeared in different fundamental laws (for example in the Magna Charta Libertatum in England). It was very essential that the expenditures should be controlled as well. The next huge step was accordint to that the acquisition of the right to make detailed prescriptions on the field of expenses. In constitutional democracies many legal resources regulate the field of budgets in modern states: different principles and detailed provisions prescribe the requirements of acquisition and the spending of funds. The current financial decisions appear in the annual detailed budgets which are accepted and their execution are controlled by the parliament on the base of publicity and transparency. This paper scrutinizes the development of the legal frames of the budgets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper draws on the company history of London's Brompton Cemetery to show how burial practices and, more generally, the handling of dead bodies changed during the nineteenth century. We argue that new strategies of dealing with the dead emerged which, in the long run, replaced established patterns: by the mid-19th century burial places were managed according to prevailing notions of efficiency, elaborate marketing schemes were implemented, and administrators used an increasingly economic rationale. To take these developments into account, we propose using the term "economization". In more general terms, we highlight that cemeteries such as Brompton can serve as an indicator of how entrepreneurial action came to permeate new strata of British society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Berliner Journal für Soziologie is the property of Springer Nature and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Bibliothek Forschung und Praxis is the property of De Gruyter and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Zeitschrift für Soziologie is the property of De Gruyter and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The article presents information on the Conference of the Social Sciences Research Committee of the International Sociological Association (ISA) held during September 11-15, 1972 in London, England. Information on representatives, mainly from Europe, England and the Netherlands, who participated in the conference is presented. Seminar papers submitted in the congress are discussed.

Imprisonment occurred on an unprecedented scale during the First World War. The Ruhleben camp, with its more than 4000 British prisoners, is an excellent example of how sport served as a lifebuoy for their barbed-wire syndrome. From September 1915 the prisoners of war started establishing a self-governing community that later functioned like a little piece of England. Playing organised games or sport took root instinctively. Initially only soccer was played and was by far the most popular sport, as rugby was prohibited yet did make an appearance later. The main driving force behind it was the South African, Lt. J. Moresby-White. When it became too hot to play soccer, the prisoners of war played cricket and later also tennis. With 10 professional golfers in the camp, this sport was also popular. Other popular sports and games included athletics, hockey, boxing, physical drill, board games and gambling. One of the redeeming features of life in the Ruhleben camp was the well-organised nature of the prisoners' sport. The camp became a world in itself -- for many the world. The fact that most of the people described captivity as a stimulating experience and that relatively few were affected negatively by it, can be attributed to the social climate in the camp. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses social and medical discourses about flatulence in 17th-century England. Relying on sources such as diaries, satires, and advice publications, the author seeks to show how the propriety or impropriety of farting depended on specific contexts and circumstances, including social status and class imagery, standards of and concerns about public manners and morals, and gender stereotypes and cultural expectations of masculinity and femininity. The author considers these questions in relation to the notion of the civilizing process, as introduced by sociologist Norbert Elias.

This article discusses the educational context of the earlier writings of John Henry Newman. Through a detailed analysis of the character of Oxford University it traces the development of his educational theory in his practice of teaching. Oxford, which remained a wholly Anglican institution until the 1870s, functioned as a microcosm for the broader issues of church and state which dominated the writings of the leaders of the Tractarian, or Oxford, Movement in the 1830s. The article helps explain why English theology developed completely differently from theology in continental Europe. For Newman, education was a pastoral and religious task where faith and life were connected through a common 'catholic' ethos: the quest for truth was a religious duty. This idea, where the intellect and will were mutually determinative of one another, remained central to his theology and theory of education after his conversion to the Roman Catholic Church, especially in his plans for the University of Dublin, published in The Idea of a University. The insight of Newman was that authentic education required a religious disposition, and learning was a moral and spiritual task. This may still be of some relevance in educational policy in the present day. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article we consider organisation, gender and higher education, and what we term the routinisation of inequality, drawing on an empirical research investigation in Sweden and England. We understand the idea of universities as historically contingent human creations that reflect an imagined past as well as the interests, values, hopes and intentions of present members as they converge and diverge on specific issues at different times and in different places. We argue that the reproduction of inequality is an assumptive process, largely unchanging and not seen as exceptional or out of the ordinary in universities and that this is connected in the present period with increasing neo--liberalism in conjunction with the new managerialism. The main conclusion is that whilst inequality is experienced negatively by those it affects adversely and who would wish otherwise, it has become ingrained in every day life as a part of our present taken for granted assumptive world. Consideration is given to future prospects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]