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Poland is a country where the commercial power industry mainly uses coal to produce energy. As a result of energy production processes, by-products of combustion are generated, primarily fly ashes. In Poland, these are mostly obtained from conventional coal combustion boilers. Fly ashes from coal combustion account for 1.2% of all industrial waste generated in Poland. In addition, fly ashes are produced by fluidized-bed boilers. These are classified as a mixture of fly ashes and solid calcium-based reaction waste from flue-gas desulphurization, and constitute almost 2% of Polish industrial waste. This paper describes the amounts of fly ashes generated in Poland and considers activities related to their recovery and disposal. The high recovery levels of fly ashes (about 90%) and fluidized ashes (about 98%) mean that these waste products can also be considered anthropogenic raw materials. The use of these materials in the cement industry is an example of industrial symbiosis. Such usage benefits not only the economy but also the environment and, therefore, society as a whole. To describe the use of recovered fly ashes in cement plants, the authors use the anthropogenicity index, which characterizes the level of technological advancement and the substitutability of primary raw materials for secondary raw materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents research on chloride minerals of natural origin from Kłodawa (Poland), i.e., colorless, blue and purple halite as well as colorless sylvite. Selected samples of minerals were studied by chemical analysis (ICP-OES, ICP-MS, titration methods) and crystallographic measurements. Then, for the tested halides, research was carried out using far-infrared spectroscopy. Spectroscopic studies confirmed the simple way of distinguishing NaCl and KCl minerals using far-infrared spectroscopy, known in the literature. The novelty is that the article presents for the first time the experimental far infrared spectra of natural blue and purple halite. It was observed that the blue (178 cm−1) and purple (176 cm−1) halites have the strongest infrared band slightly shifted towards higher wavenumbers compared to colorless halite (174 cm−1). As part of the work, the infrared spectra of the crystal structure models of sodium and potassium chloride were calculated for the first time using the density functional theory (with the B3LYP functional and the 6-31G* basis set, 125-atom model). The proposed approach can be used not only as a powerful method differentiating NaCl and KCl minerals, but it can also help with understanding of different defects in crystal lattices for naturally occurring halides and crystals of other minerals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Podgórze uranium deposit is located near Kowary in the Sudetes Mountains, SW Poland. The mine is located in the Karkonosze-Izera block, largely comprising Cambrian to Devonian metamorphic rocks intruded by the Variscan Karkonosze granite. Uranyl minerals from the Podgórze mine can be divided into three assemblages. The first one is associated with heavily ventilated mining galleries. The next assemblage is related to the outflow of water from fissures in the walls of the mine galleries. The last assemblage appears in the mine dump, where there is increased activity of other weathering products. The main purpose of this paper is to determine the mineralogical characteristics of uranyl minerals from the abandoned Podgórze uranium mine and reconstruct the physicochemical crystallization conditions based on the concentrations of rare earth elements (REEs) in these minerals. The results of thermodynamic modeling show that the aqueous species of uranyl ion in the mine water are represented by UO2HAsO4 (aq), UO2CO3(OH)3−, UO2CO3 (aq), and UO2OH+. The content of REEs and their distribution patterns were used to determine the crystallization conditions of uranyl minerals. Uranyl carbonates and arsenates have generally low concentrations of REEs compared to uranyl silicates, phosphates, and hydroxides, which have higher concentrations. The differences in REE concentration patterns may be related with the oxidizing nature of water circulating in the subsurface part of the deposit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peat sediments represent important environmental and climatic archives, as well as recording information on the processes affecting the formation of these deposits; combined these data can be used for paleoreconstruction of peat-bogs. In this paper we characterize heavy mineral-rich sandy layers from two peat-bog sites in Mizerów and Strumień (Poland). In both cases, the most common identified mineral suite is: epidote, staurolite, tourmaline (dravite and schörl), garnet, spinel, Al2SiO5 polymorphs (sillimanite, kyanite, andalusite), amphibole (mainly hornblende), pyroxene (e.g., richterite, diopside), perovskite, topaz, cordierite, apatite, monazite, chromite, ilmenite, chlorite, iron oxides, rutile and siderite. This mineral suite is characteristic of a metamorphic aureole surrounding a magmatic body. Pyrite is likely authigenic in origin. Apatite and monazite were employed for U-Pb and CHIME dating, respectively. Based on the U-Pb age information composition and textural features of selected minerals, different provenance areas were indicated: the Tatra Massif, the Bohemian Massif, and the Silesian Basin area. Transport of the investigated mineral phases was linked to development of both the Odra (praOdra) and the Vistula valleys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we discuss the hypothesis on the volcanic origin of the precursor sediments for a thick (0.6 m) clay bed, hosted by the sequence of lithothamnium limestones of the Pińczów Formation. Combined X-ray powder diffraction, imaging methods (optical and electron microscopy), and chemical analysis were used to document the volcanic markers, which were preserved in the rock studied. The results obtained show that the clay bed discussed is bentonite in origin. This bentonite, which can be called Drugnia Rządowa bentonite, is composed almost entirely of montmorillonite with little admixtures of quartz and biotite. A small amount of calcite is present, but only in the top of the bed. Despite that, the bentonite contains nothing but clay material—it is a model example of entirely altered pyroclastic rock, which retains texture originally developed in volcanic glass fragments and reveals the preserved original features of the precursor fallout pyroclastic deposits (rhyolitic in character). The thick bentonite beds, discovered for the first time within the Badenian lithothamnium limestones of the Pińczów Formation, can be considered as a record of a violent, explosive volcanic event related to the closure of the Outer Carpathian basin and the development of the Carpathian Foredeep. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Polish sediment-hosted stratiform copper deposits associated with Zechstein sediments are one of the country's most valuable natural resources and the basis for its copper industry. The paper presents the history of their research and current exploration. Although documented deposits and their identified resources are described and characterized, much attention is paid to areas located outside of them, including those where geological exploration is currently underway. The gradual depletion of shallow Cu–Ag reserves in the Lubin-Sieroszowice district and elsewhere in the world requires exploration for deeper-seated deposits. To expand resources, time span and scale of copper production in Poland, exploration and definition of new prospects is of great importance. Thirty-five prospective areas with hypothetical and speculative resources have been delineated in SW Poland, including the most prospective areas adjacent to the Cu–Ag Lubin-Sieroszowice deposit. The paper also focuses on those parts of the Fore-Sudetic Monocline where new copper deposits were recently identified. Their resources are described along with the methodology of establishing their boundaries, which differs from recommended Polish threshold parameters not taking into account the depths exceeding 1500 m. Intelligent modern mining and ore processing technologies are considered as a prerequisite for future profitable development of deposits at deeper levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Civilization development has contributed to environmental pollution. In recent years, the number of vehicles has increased significantly; according to the Central Statistical Office, the number of passenger cars in Poland in 2000 was nearly 10 million, while in 2020 it was slightly more than 25 million. The study aimed to determine the content and spatial distribution of trace elements (Fe, Mn, Cd, Pb, Cr, Ni, Zn and Cu) in the roadside topsoil along the trunk road Białystok–Budzisko on different types of land use (urban, rural, agricultural and forestal areas). Forty-five soil samples were collected from a 160 km road section, at intervals of approximately 4 km. Metal contents were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrometry. The concentrations of metals in roadside soils occurred in the following order: Fe > Mn > Zn > Cr > Cu > Pb > Ni > Cd. The average contents of Cd, Zn, Cu, and Pb were higher than the geochemical background values of the Polish soils. Moreover, the values of the Igeo showed for Cd moderate to strong, while for Zn, Cu and Pb, moderate soil contamination. The study indicates that significant metal-binding factors in the studied roadside soils are Fe and Mn oxides. The crucial source of metals is road transport, depending on its intensity, which means amount, type, and speed of vehicles. Moreover, based on the analysis of the course of the factor values and their dynamics, it was observed that the areas where typical activities connected with the population take place (urban and agricultural areas) are additional sources of heavy metals. The results of this paper are relevant to the prevention and control of heavy metal pollution in roadside soils. The study can contribute to reducing the concentration of toxic elements in ecosystems due to vehicle emissions with appropriate land-use policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Impurities in paint layers executed with green and blue copper pigments, although relatively common, have been studied only little to date. Yet, their proper identification is a powerful tool for classification of paintings, and, potentially, for future provenance studies. In this paper, we present analyses of copper pigments layers from wall paintings situated in the vicinity of copper ore deposits (the palace in Kielce, the palace in Ciechanowice, and the parish church in Chotków) located within the contemporary borders of Poland. We compare the results with the analyses of copper minerals from three deposits, two local, and one historically important for the supply of copper in Europe, i.e., Miedzianka in the Holy Cross Mountains, Miedzianka in the Sudetes, and, as a reference, Špania Dolina in the Slovakian Low Tatra. Optical (OM) and electron microscopy (SEM-EDS), Raman spectroscopy, and laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) have been used for a detailed investigation of the minute grains. Special attention has been devoted to antimony and nickel phases, as more unusual than the commonly described iron oxides. Analyses of minerals from the deposits helped to interpret the results obtained from the paint samples. For the first time, quantitative analyses of copper pigments' impurities have been described. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A thorough petrographic evaluation of aggregates from igneous rocks in terms of their alkali–silica reaction (ASR) potential is crucial in ensuring the durability and long-term performance of concrete structures, especially those where access to additional alkalis is possible, such as from de-icing agents. The aim of the research was to assess the potential reactivity of aggregates from igneous rocks, as only such aggregates are used for concrete airport pavements in Poland. Petrographic analysis was conducted to identify the reactive minerals in the aggregate, and it was extended by quantitative image analysis. The strained, microcrystalline and cryptocrystalline quartz were found to be reactive components but significantly differed in content. It was found that aggregates from igneous rocks were characterized by different susceptibility to ASR and that methods to mitigate the occurrence of ASR should be considered to be used in airfield concrete. A relationship between the content of analyzed reactive minerals and the expansion of mortar bars in AMBT, as well as of the concrete prism in the CPT method, was revealed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents the latest state of knowledge on clastic sedimentary rocks from the Carboniferous complex in the SW part of the Polish Lowlands, studied to help determine their potential prospectivity for the occurrence of oil and/or gas deposits. Rocks were analyzed with respect to the petrographic-mineralogical characteristics of the Carboniferous deposits, their diagenesis, determinations of pressure-temperature conditions of mineral formation and the hydrocarbon occurrence. Analyses were carried out on samples from four selected boreholes in the Fore-Sudetic Monocline. After microscopic analysis of rocks and minerals in thin sections, the following techniques were used: luminescence analysis (UV, blue light), microthermometric analysis of fluid inclusions in double-sided polished wafers, cathodoluminescence analysis, electron scanning microscope studies, XRD analyses, stable isotopic analyses (carbon, oxygen) on calcite and dolomite-ankerite and Raman spectra of fluid inclusions. Orthochemical components, such as carbonates and authigenic quartz, that form cements or fill the veins cutting the sample material have been studied. Fluid inclusion data in quartz and carbonates result in homogenization temperatures of 74–233 °C. The Raman analysis gives temperature estimations for the organic matter of about 164 °C and 197 °C, depending on the borehole, which points to a low coalification degree. The post-sedimentary processes of compaction, cementation and diagenetic dissolution under eo- and meso-diagenetic conditions to temperatures of over 160 °C influenced the present character of the deposits. P-T conditions of brines and methane trapping have been estimated to be ~850–920 bars and 185–210 °C (vein calcite) and ~1140 bars and 220 °C (Fe-dolomite/ankerite). Therefore, locally, temperatures might have been higher (>200 °C), which may be a symptom of local regional metamorphism of a very low degree. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes and analyzes the Upper Jurassic (Lower Kimmeridgian) succession exposed in the Zakrzówek Horst, located in the Kraków area. Three distinguished facies types FT 1-FT 3 comprise several limestone varieties: sponge-microbial, pelitic-bioclastic, and partly dolomitized detrital-bioclastic. Their sedimentary environments varied from relatively deeper, attaining storm-wave base, to more shallower, probably close to normal-wave base. Characteristic features of limestones are changes in contents of CaCO3 and insoluble residuum as well as porosity values in vertical transitional zones between facies types. The investigated facies types differ in sediment porosity dependent on development of limestones and its susceptibility to mechanical compaction during the early diagenesis. The studied limestones show high CaCO3 contents and minor insoluble residuum contents comprising quartz, chalcedony and clay minerals. No distinct variability occurs in contents of magnesium, silica, alumina and iron accumulated in clay minerals, iron oxides and oxyhydroxides, as well as in the amounts of amorphous silica. Early diagenetic dolomites, which occur locally within the limestones, were unrelated to fracture systems as possible pathways responsible for transfer of solutions rich in Mg2+ ions. The possible source of Mg2+ ions might have been the pore solutions, which migrated from compacted basinal bedded facies towards reef facies or the grain-supported bedded facies developed in the adjacent areas. Microscopic studies revealed dedolomitization at the surfaces and in the inner parts of dolomite crystals. In many cases, dolomite crystals were replaced by calcite forming pseudomorphs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The subject of this work was supergene uranium mineralization and the YREE concentrations within. YREE differentiation patterns were used to recreate the prevailing crystallization conditions of abandoned mine dumps in Kromnów, Kopaniec, and Radoniów, located in the Izera Metamorphic Complex, Sudetes Mts. The collected samples were investigated using PXRD, SEM-EDS, and EPMA. YREE concentrations were measured using LA-ICP-MS. The secondary uranium mineralization from these locations consists of phosphates (meta-autunite, meta-torbernite, metauranocircite-I, saleéite, bassetite, phosphuranylite), arsenates (zeunerite), silicates (uranophane, sklodowskite), and uranyl hydroxides (likely becquerelite). Moreover, in Radoniów, phosphuranylite was found; it had not been found in Poland previously. Uranyl mineral assemblages indicate the diversity of chemistry of their mother solutions and suggest their weakly acidic character. The YREE content in secondary uranium minerals also reflects the pore solutions' chemistry variation. The negative Y anomaly is observed in all uranyl phases. Similar behavior of Sm is also noted, excluding metatorbernite and torbernite. Among the uranyl minerals studied, only metatorbernite from Kromnów showed a positive Nb anomaly, which was probably related to proximity to weathering in YREE-breeding phases. Nevertheless, the YREE and chemical results suggest that this mineralization originated from the oxidizing solutions generated during the weathering of primary hydrothermal mineralization. In order to better understand the weathering zones in these locations, more detailed studies on pore solution chemistry are needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The quantitative logs method is designed for objective facies analysis of thick sedimentary successions. This method enables the analysis of whole successions instead of selected intervals arbitrarily considered as representative and results in a database suitable for further analysis, e.g., statistical, quantitative stratigraphy, or facies modelling. The logging procedure involves the following steps: (i) each of the logged sedimentary features is classified according to a standard, e.g., grain-size follows the phi scale or Wentworth classes are applied for bed thickness; (ii) in the course of logging, the whole succession is subdivided into intervals, each of which is characterised by a predominant (i.e., modal) class of the considered feature; (iii) such modal class characterises a part of the section that has a specific thickness and is called a 'modally homogeneous interval' (MHI); and (iv) the lower and upper boundary of each MHI are defined by a change in the modal class. The thickness of all MHIs characterised by the same class interval is then added. The grand total of such component sub-totals for all class intervals of the logged feature equals the log thickness and is the basis for the calculation of frequency distribution, which characterises the succession from the viewpoint of this feature. Each bar of the resulting histogram represents the percentage of the whole section composed of the strata among which the given class occurs as the modal (i.e., predominant) feature. The method of modal quantitative logs is illustrated here with an example of statistical analysis of selected sections of the Krosno Beds (Oligocene) turbidite succession from the Western Outer Carpathians of Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the results of consolidated and undrained (CU) triaxial cyclic tests related to the influence of tire waste addition on the strength characteristics of two different soils from Southern Poland: unswelling kaolin and swelling red clay. The test procedure included the normally consolidated remolded specimens prepared from pure red clay (RC) and kaolin (K) and their mixtures with two different fractions of shredded rubber powder (P) and granulate (G) in 5%, 10%, and 25% mass proportions. All samples were subjected to low-frequency cyclic loading carried out with a constant stress amplitude. Analysis of the results includes consideration of the effect of rubber additive and number of load cycles on the development of excess pore pressure and axial strain during the cyclic load operation and on the maximum stress deviator value. A general decrease in the shear strength due to the cyclic load operation was observed, and various effects of shear strength depended on the mixture content and size of the rubber waste particles. In general, the use of soil–rubber mixtures, especially for expansive soils and powder, should be treated with caution for cyclic loading. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work concerns non-pressure granulation of mineral materials used for the production of agricultural fertilizers for soil deacidification. In order to expand the product range of Nordkalk Poland sp. z o. o. located in Poland, the granulation conditions of the gypsum–lime mix were examined with the use of various granulation methods. The processed mixture was Jurassic lime flour mined in the Sławno mine (Poland) and waste gypsum (sulfogypsum) obtained from the largest coal-fired power plant in the EU, Bełchatów Power Plant (Poland). This paper presents the results of the optimization of the gypsum–lime fertilizer granulation process. The results of the study of granulation of gypsum–lime mixture realized in one-stage technology in a disc granulator were compared with the effects of two-stage agglomeration. During the research, a mixture (in a 1:1 ratio) of waste sulfogypsum and lime flour was used. Such a weight ratio provides maximum use of the sulfogypsum waste while maintaining good mechanical properties of the granulate. The granulated bed was moistened with a lignosulfonate solution. The process was carried out periodically. After the experiment, the grain composition of the granulate obtained was determined and tests were performed to determine the strength of the product. The test results were compared with analogous ones obtained during granulation with the use of molasses (waste from sugar production). The results obtained were verified during a trial carried out on an industrial scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The reconstruction of a lithological profile based on geophysical logs of chemical composition provided by geochemical gamma-gamma well logging probes has been increasingly used for geophysical interpretation. A chemical profile, analogous to the measurements mentioned above, can be determined based on measurements made with a portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (pXRF). This paper presents a methodology for determining the mineral composition of drilled, clastic, as well as clay-rich rocks on the basis of both inexpensive and timesaving pXRF measurements as well as models combining the results of chemical composition analysis with results of mineral composition analysis (XRD). The results of chemical composition analysis obtained with a portable XRF spectrometer were calibrated based on a detailed analysis produced with ICP-OES and ICP-MS methods. A significant advantage of the proposed method is the possibility to apply it with regard to drill cuttings as well as archival cores. However, considerable discrepancies in the results obtained were identified while comparing the results of chemical composition analysed directly on the core and milled material. The analysed material comprised Carboniferous rocks derived from three boreholes located in Poland: Kobylin-1 as well as Biesiekierz-1 and -2. It was possible to directly compare the lithological profile obtained based on measurements taken on drill cuttings with the results of the lithological interpretation of a geochemical probe log. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a new instrument in geological exploration, which uses historical geophysical data for the indication of potential zones of the occurrence of Cu-Ag ore, based on the example of the newly discovered Nowa Sól deposit in south-western Poland. Basic historical seismic and gravimetric data were applied along with transformed maps. The new method of effective reflection coefficients (ERC) allowed the utilization of archival seismic records for a more precise determination of the most vaguely traced interfaces within the Permian Zechstein unit. Compared to an amplitude-based seismic section, an ERC section is characterized by its highly increased resolution of imaging. The tracing of changes in the facies and the tectonics of Zechstein sediments, particularly in a zone of their contact with Rotliegend rocks, along with the new ERC method, enabled the establishing of precise locations of prospecting boreholes. The combined use of ERC and historical well logs also allowed more precise identification of the shape of oxidized areas and the adjacent orebodies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coal-fired power facilities generate a polymetallic effluent (Flue Gas Desulfurization—FGD) rich in sulfate. FGD effluents may be considered an important secondary resource. This paper investigates the recovery of sulfate as barite (BaSO4), a mineral with high commercial value and a critical raw material. Using equimolar BaCl2, >99% desulfurization of an FGD effluent produced by a coal-fired power plant operating in central Poland was achieved, yielding up to 16.5 kg high purity barite m−3. The recovered barite was characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), thermogravimetric (TGA), scanning electron microscopy analysis (SEM), surface properties (PZC), density, and chemical stability (TCLP), and was compared with a commercial reference material. Barite recovery also led to the reduction in concentration of Al (86%), Cu (52%), K (69%), Mo (62%), Se (40%), Sr (91%), and U (75%) initially present in the FGD effluent. TCLP results indicate the entrapment and the stabilization of ~70% Se and ~90% Al in the barite structure. Based on this dataset, an in-depth characterization of the recovered barite is presented, and the removal mechanism of the elements is discussed. The study also provides a preliminary cost benefit analysis of the process. To our best knowledge, this is the first work showing barite recovery and metal removal from FGD effluents using a one-step process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pickeringite, ideally MgAl2(SO4)4·22H2O, is a member of the halotrichite group minerals XAl2(SO4)4·22H2O that form extensive solid solutions along the joints of the X = Fe-Mg-Mn-Zn. The few comprehensive reports on natural halotrichites indicate their genesis to be mainly the low-pH oxidation of pyrite or other sulfides in the Al-rich environments of weathering rock-forming aluminosilicates. Pickeringite discussed here occurs within the efflorescences on sandstones from the Stone Town Nature Reserve in Ciężkowice (the Polish Outer Carpathians), being most probably the first find on such rocks in Poland. This paper presents mineralogical and geochemical characteristics of the pickeringite (based on SEM-EDS, XRPD, EPMA and RS methods) and suggests its possible origin. It belongs to the pickeringite–apjohnite (Mg-Mn joints) series and has the calculated formula Mg0.75Mn0.21Zn0.02Cu0.01Al2.02(S0.99 to 1.00O4)4·22H2O (based on 16O and 22H2O). The unit cell parameters refined for the monoclinic system space group P21/c are: a = 6.1981(28) Å, b= 24.2963(117) Å, c = 21.2517(184) Å and β = 100.304(65)°. The Raman spectra (SO4) bands are the intensive 994 cm−1 and a low-intensive 975 cm−1 (ν1), low-intensive 1081, 1123 and 1145 cm−1 (ν3), 524, 467 and 425cm−1 (ν2), 615 cm−1 (ν4), while those at 344 and 310 cm−1 are attributed to νg H2O and at 223 cm−1 to the lattice modes. Crystallization of pickeringite within the particular tor resulted from a certain set of conditions: climatic (e.g., season, temperature, humidity), physicochemical (e.g., pH, concentration), mineral (the presence of pyrite), and site-related (location and efflorescence protection). The sulfate ions could have been derived from oxidation of pyrite in the Ciężkowice sandstones and possibly are related to local mineral waters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The studied copper ore deposit is located in Miedzianka Mountain (Świętokrzyskie Mountains, central Poland). This deposit was exploited from the 13th century to the 1950s; therefore numerous historical adits are currently present. One of these is Teresa adit (established in 1805), consisting of underground mining corridors and natural cave developed in the Upper Devonian limestones, partially transformed by mining works. Samples of copper- and rock-forming minerals in limestones collected at seven sites within the richest copper-bearing mineralisation in this adit were studied with petrographic investigation of thin sections, micro-area chemical analysis (EDS), and XRD. This study shows the presence of various minerals: (a) Cu-Fe sulphides (relics of chalcopyrite) and Cu sulphides (covellite, chalcocite), (b) Cu-Fe oxides (cuprite and hematite), (c) Ca and Cu carbonates (calcite, azurite, and malachite), (d) clay minerals (Fe-Mg illite), and (e) micro-crystalline silica (quartz). For the first time in the studied deposit, we described chalcopyrite relics in cuprite pseudomorphosis, hematite with admixture of vanadium in pinkish-creme veins in limestones, and the presence of an admixture of Fe-Mg illite and microcystaline silica within cracks of limestones. In addition, for the first time, unit cell parameters of malachite and azurite from Miedzianka Mountain were determined, indicating very low substitutions of atoms other than Cu in their structures. We suppose that the minerals studied were formed during three types of copper mineralisation processes: (a) hydrothermal (relics of chalcopyrite), (b) secondary weathering (chalcocite, covellite, cuprite, hematite), and (c) adsorptive mineralisation (azurite, malachite). The latter stage is related to residuum, which consists of a mixture of Fe-Mg illite and micro-crystalline quartz, which was formed during the dissolution of limestones in karst processes in some crevices. We proposed a model of the formation of copper carbonates in the adsorption stage of the copper-bearing mineralisation in Miedzianka Mountain deposits. Two generations of calcite veins (older—red calcite and younger—crème-pinkish calcite) were also detected. Mineralogical–petrographical studies of samples revealed a high scientific and educational value. Due to the fact that the Teresa adit is planned to be made available to geotourists, this work is worth presenting to the public either in the adit and/or in a local museum in Miedzianka village. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Activity concentration of 210Pb in black powder and gamma radiation dose rate related to natural gas transportation were discussed. As part of the research, the content of radiolead (210Pb) in black powder, spent filter containers, radon (222Rn) activity concentration in natural gas and gamma radiation dose were measured around selected points of natural gas transportation infrastructure in Poland. The content of some heavy metals was also analyzed. The average concentrations of 222Rn and 210Pb ranged from 30 to 1400 Bq/m3 and from around 450 to 16,000 Bq/kg, respectively. The external exposure to gamma radiation was low; the gamma radiation dose rate was at the level of background radiation or slightly exceeded it. The research demonstrated that the content of 210Pb in black powder is strongly related to radon concentration in natural gas, the volumetric flow rate of the transported natural gas and solid fraction content. Some black powder samples should be classified based on 210Pb content as low-radioactive waste. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The new exposure of the Upper Muschelkalk clays and dolomites located south of Kalety (Tarnogórski District, Silesia, Poland) provided numerous remains of vertebrates represented by teeth, scales, long bones, and coprolites. Despite the influence of hydrothermal processes leading to dolomitization and Zn-Pb deposit formation, the preservation of fossil remains is good. The taxonomic diversity and accumulation of vertebrate debris in the dolomite are similar to other "bone beds" from the Muschelkalk and the Lower Keuper units. The SEM-EDS, EMP-WDS, and XRD analyses confirm that the examined remains consist of hydroxylapatite containing carbonate ions. Most vertebrate teeth as well as some bone fragments show zoning in the BSE imaging. In tooth cross-sections, three or two zones are preserved: (I) the outermost zone, associated with diagenetic mineralization of enameloid apatite, (II) a intermediate zone (orthodentine), and (III) the most porous internal zone (osteodentine). Decreasing P, Ca, Sr in the composition of the apatite which forms successive zones, is visible from the most external to the central part. Selective diagenetic substitution and adsorption of some elements by apatite crystals can allow recognition of the genetic origin of highly damaged or transported fragments scattered in the sedimentary layers. The chemical behavior of bioapatite, from deposition to digenesis, shows its useful role for identification of the formation process and potential, younger changes (e.g., hydrothermal overprint). The X-ray diffraction data, particularly cell parameters "a" and "c", can determine the degree of crystallinity and/or diagenesis. Moreover, correlation between some elements/ions (e.g., Sr, Ba, Ca, Mg, F, OH) can be helpful for the identification of the fossil type, especially if the bones are small and incomplete. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study presents a potential treatment method for contaminated groundwater from a waste heap in southern Poland. The method is based on the continuous monitoring of two parameters: pH and electrical conductivity (EC). Four years of historical monitoring data (2007–2010) were modeled using a Visual MODFLOW based numerical model of groundwater flow and migration of pollutants for low and high precipitation periods. Mapping the natural conditions in the numerical model allowed for the direction of contaminant migration in the aquifer to be identified. Groundwater treatment via injection of a nano zerovalent iron (nZVI) suspension into the aquifer was then designed; the target contaminant was Zn(II) because of its high concentrations and relatively high toxicity. Online monitoring for mining waste heaps is proposed to record sudden outflows of contaminants into the groundwater related to climate change and to take remedial action via nZVI injection. EC is the variable to be introduced into the contaminant migration model, which allows to determine the nZVI injection locations. As a result, the aquatic environment would be effectively and economically protected. The optimal use of nZVI, without intensively interfering with the environment, is ensured. This method is a convenient tool when making decisions to treat mining-impacted groundwater. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Blasting and fracking of rock in mines exposes fresh rock surfaces to the local water and microbial communities. This may lead to leaching of metals from the rock by chemical or biological means and can cause acidification of the water system in the mine, i.e., acid rock drainage (ARD). Failure to prevent leakage of metal contaminated mine water may be harmful for the environment, especially to the local groundwater. In the Rudna mine, Poland, an in situ bioleaching pilot test at approximately 1 km depth was performed in the H2020 BIOMOre project (Grant Agreement #642456). After the leaching stage, different methods for irreversible inhibition of acidophilic iron oxidizing microorganisms used for reoxidation of reduced iron in the leaching solution were tested and were shown to be effective. However, the potential of the natural mine water microbial communities to cause leaching of copper or acidification of the mine waters has not been tested. In this study, we set up a microcosm experiment simulating the exposure of freshly fractionated Kupferschiefer sandstone or black schist to two different chloride-rich water types in the Rudna mine. The pH of the microcosms water was measured over time. At the end of an 18-week incubation, the bacterial community was examined by high throughput sequencing and qPCR, and the presence of copper tolerant heterotrophic bacteria was tested by cultivation. The dissolution of copper into the chloride rich microcosm water was measured. The pH in the microcosms did not decrease over the time of incubation. The sandstone increased the number of bacteria in the microcosms with one or over two orders of magnitude compared to the original water. The bacterial communities in the two tested mine waters were diverse and similar despite the difference in salinity. The bacterial diversity was high but changed in the less saline water during the incubation. There was a high content of sulphate reducing bacteria in the original mine waters and in the microcosms, and their number increased during the incubation. No acidophilic iron oxidizers were detected, but in the microcosms containing the less saline water low numbers of Cu tolerant bacteria were detected. Copper to a concentration of up to 939 mg L−1 was leached from the rock also in the microbe-free negative controls, which was up to 2.4 times that leached in the biotic microcosms, indicating that the leaching was also abiotic, not only caused by bacteria. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We applied geochemical (ICP-MS, WD-XRF, GFAAS, and AMA 254) and mineralogical (EPMA) studies of 137 samples to ore mineralization from Middle-Triassic sediment-hosted Zn-Pb (Mississippi Valley-type MVT) and Lower Zechstein sediment-hosted stratiform (SSC) Cu-Ag (Kupferschiefer-type) deposits in Poland. They contain a number of trace elements which are not recovered during the ore processing. Only Cu, Ag, Pb, Ni, Re, Se, Au, and PGE are extracted from Cu-Ag deposits while Zn and Pb are the only elements produced from Zn-Pb deposits. Zn-Pb deposits contain Cd, Ag, Ga, and Ba in slightly elevated concentrations and have potential to be mineral resources. This applies to a lesser extent to other trace elements (Bi, As, Hf, Tl, Sb, Se, and Re). However, only Cd and Ag show high enrichment factors indicative of potential for recovery. The bulk-rock analyses reveal strong correlations between Zn and Cd and Se, As and Mo, and weaker correlations between Ag and Cd, as well as Ga and Zn. Electron microprobe analyses of sphalerite revealed high concentrations of Cd (≤2.6 wt%) and Ag (≤3300 ppm). Zn-Pb deposits have fairly significant estimated resources of Ga and Sc (>1000 tons) and Cd (>10,000 tons). The Cu-Ag deposits have element signatures characterized by high values of Co, V, Ni, and Mo and much lower of Bi, As, Cd, Hg, Mo, Sb, and Tl. Bulk-rock analyses show strong correlations between Se and V; As and Co; Bi and Re; and weaker correlations between, for example, Cu and Mo; V, Ni, Ag and Mo; and Ni, V, and Co and Ni. The EPMA determinations reveal strong enrichments of Ag in Cu sulfides (geerite ≤ 10.1 wt %, chalcocite ≤ 6.28 wt %, bornite ≤ 3.29 wt %, djurleite ≤ 9080 ppm, yarrowite ≤ 6614 ppm, and digenite ≤ 3545 ppm). Silver minerals and alloys, as well as the native Ag and Au, were recorded in the Cu-Ag ores. Large resources of Co, V, and Ni (>100,000 tons) and Sc and Mo (>10,000 tons) are notable in Cu-Ag deposits. A number of trace elements, classified as critical for the economy of the European Union, including Ga and Ba (to a lesser extent Hf, Nb, and Sc) in Zn-Pb deposits, and Co and V in the Cu-Ag deposits, may eventually be recovered in the future from the studied deposits if proper ore-processing circuits and increasing demand are favorable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Kletno deposit in the Śnieżnik Massif (Central Sudetes, SW Poland), mined for Fe, U, Ag, Cu, fluorite, and marble through the ages, developed at the contact of marbles and orthogneiss. Here, we present a new Fe-Ti-V-ore (containing up to 14.07 wt. % Fe, 2.05 wt. % Ti, and 2055 ppm V in bulk rock) and ornamental- to gem-quality talc prospect at the southwest margin of this deposit. This newly documented Fe-Ti-V mineralization is hosted in hornblendites, dolomite veins, and chlorite schists, which, along with talc, envelopes a tectonic slice of serpentinite. Hornblendites are interpreted as metamorphosed ferrogabbros, derived from the same mafic melts as adjacent barren metagabbros. The oxygen and carbon isotope compositions of metabasites and dolomite veins (amphibole δ18O values = 8.8-9.3‰; carbonate δ18O values = 12.8-16.0‰, and δ13C values = -8.3‰ to -7.2‰), in combination with those of the country marbles (carbonate δ18O and δ13C values = 23.2‰ and +0.1‰, respectively), suggest that mineralization-bearing hornblendites formed due to interaction of the mafic magma with CO2 released during the decarbonation of the sediments. The CO2-bearing fluid interaction with gabbros likely caused carbonation of the gabbros and formation of the dolomite veins, whereas talc formed due to Si-rich fluids, possibly derived from a mafic intrusion, interaction with serpentinite, or due to the metasomatism of the serpentinite-gabbro assemblage. Moreover, fluids leaching Fe and Ti from the adjacent sediments can mix with the mafic magma causing enrichment of the magma in Fe and Ti. Consequently, the mineralization-bearing ferrogabbros became even more enriched in Fe and Ti, which can be linked with the formation of Fe-Ti-V ore bodies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the results of investigations on three lithological types of Polish copper ore: sandstone ore, carbonate ore, and shale ore. According to X-ray diffraction analysis, sandstone samples can be classified as sandstone with dolomite binder and partly clay binder; shale--as dolomitic slate with a high proportion of clay with elevated organic matter content; while dolomite has a high organic content. Five particle-sized fractions (16-18 mm, 18-20 mm, 20-25 mm, 25-31.5 mm, and 31.5-45 mm) of each lithological type were prepared. A single-axis slow-compression test was performed on single particles to determine the value of the crushing force. TheWeibull distribution was used to approximate the strength distribution models and cumulative strength distribution functions for each of the materials. The residual deviation and non-linear correlation coefficient were calculated in order to assess the fitting of the model function to empirical data. In addition, the impact of particle size on the strength of the raw material was separately investigated for the hard (dolomite and shale) and soft brittle material (sandstone). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to determine the content and spatial distribution of metals (Ca, Mg, Fe, Na, K, Mn, Zn, Cr, Cu, Pb, Co) in sediments in the coastal zone of Ełckie Lake located in the area of "Green Lungs of Poland" in the north-eastern part of the country, depending on the land use (urban area, agricultural and forest area, and beaches). The concentration of metals was determined using atomic absorption spectrometry. The average contents of major elements in 28 sediment samples occurred in the following order: Ca > Mg > Fe > Na > K > Mn. The order of these elements in the coastal sediments located within the different parts of the catchment was identical. These elements may originate from natural sources such as the Earth's crust, soil, and wind-blown dust from unpaved roads. The average contents of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in the sediments were as follows: Cr > Zn > Pb > Cu > Co in agricultural and forest areas and beaches (the exception was Cu for beach B, which occurred at the end of the series). A different pattern occurred in urbanized areas: Zn > Cr > Cu > Pb > Co. The spatial distribution of heavy metals in the sediments indicated the highest contents in the shoreline adjacent to the urbanized part of the catchment. The primary sources of metals in sediment are transportation, coal burning, sanitary sewage from unsewered developments on the lakeshore, and storm runoff from roads. This was confirmed by positive correlations of Zn with Cu (r = 0.58), Pb (r = 0.90), Fe (r = 0.40). No correlations between the studied metals and organic matter were found, which may indicate its insignificant influence on metal content in the sediments. Pearson correlation coefficients also showed no relationship between sediment pH and the presence of metals. Factor analysis (FA) indicated that lithogenic (geogenic) and anthropogenic factors have almost equal shares in the distribution of most of the metals studied. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that the average contents of Zn, Cu, Co, and Na in the sediments from urbanized areas are statistically significantly higher than the sediments from other areas (rural/forest, beaches). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this article is to present possibilities of producing aggregates with an increased content of regular particles in some well-known examples, as well as to present previously unused methods of aggregate production. Traditional aggregate production systems require the use of three or four grinding stages (depending on the particle size of the feed), but fine fractions contain approximately 10% irregular grains on average. The conducted research has shown that in innovative patented technological systems, it is possible to obtain regular aggregates with a share of irregular grains below 3%. The separated irregular aggregates can be crushed again or used for other purposes. The advantages of such inventions include less grinding stages, reduced dust, and lower energy consumption. Regular aggregates also have benefits compared to typical ones. The analyzed aggregate products from various mines showed that regular aggregates have better properties, for example, higher resistance to grinding and abrasion. This article also describes the advantages of using such aggregates for concrete or other applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pyrite from the central part of the Myszków porphyry deposit in Poland was investigated using a combination of reflected and transmitted polarizing microscopy, back-scattered imaging with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and Raman micro-spectroscopy. Five generations of pyrite (I–V) found in hydrothermal veins were distinguished, differing in morphology, microtexture, and the types and amounts of solid inclusions. In general, pyrite hosts a diversity of mineral inclusions, including both gangue and ore phases, i.e., chlorite, quartz, monazite, cerianite-(Ce), xenotime, K-feldspars, albite, sericite, barite, magnetite, chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, bastnaesite (Ce), bismuthinite, native silver, cassiterite, rutile, anatase, and aikinite-group species. The presence of inclusions is good evidence of various stages of the evolution of the hydrothermal lode system ranging from high- to low-temperature conditions. During the formation of stockworks, some fluctuations in the physicochemical conditions of mineralizing fluids were indicated by the occurrence of cassiterite formed from acidic, reducing solutions, and hematite hosted in xenotime or REE phases found in pyrite, which signal more oxidizing conditions. Periodically, some episodes of boiling in the hydrothermal, porphyry-related system were recorded. They were mainly evidenced by the presence of (1) lattice-bladed calcite found in the close vicinity of pyrite II, (2) irregular grain edges of pyrite I, (3) clustered micropores in pyrite I, and (4) the variety of mineral inclusions hosted in I and II generations of pyrite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brizziite, a rare sodium antimonate (NaSb5+O3), and fluorcalcioroméite ((Ca,Na)2Sb5+2O6F), have been identified in two boreholes (Pasternik and Włosienica) which are situated 50 km apart. Both wells are located west of Krakow, Poland, and were drilled in the Miocene strata of the Paratethys Sea (a remnant of the Tethys Ocean). The Sb minerals are scattered in a solidified light blue silica gel within marls and layered clays. They occur most often as anhedral grains up to 20 μm in size. The presence of these phases was confirmed by Raman spectroscopy (RS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The brizziite from this study represents a secondary mineral after the alteration of roméite within a supergene zone, or crystallization from Sb-rich solutions derived by the leaching of the weathered primary roméite. Hence, the calcium and fluorine admixtures in their composition, determined by EPMA, indicate intergrowths of brizziite and roméite on the micro- to crypto-scale. The presence of the antimony in the study area is related to rejuvenated Old-Paleozoic polymetallic ore-mineralization occurring in the basement of the Krakow-Silesia Monocline. The phenomenon of the repeatability of brizziite in Pasternik and Włosienica, distant by several tens of kilometers, can be explained by the following three steps: (i) the penetration of the chloride ions from the drying up seawaters of the Paratethys Sea into the Miocene groundwater system, (ii) the mobilization of Sb5+ in the form of chloride complexes, and, finally, (iii) the transportation of the Sb-bearing solutions within the marly and clay sediments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The U–Pb measurements of youngest, coherent group of zircons from the Mielnik IG1 dolerite at the Teisseyre-Tornquist margin (TTZ) of East European Craton (EEC) in Poland yielded age of 300 ± 4 Ma. Zircon dated an evolved portion of magma at the late stage crystallization. It is shown that this isolated dyke from the northern margin of the Lublin Podlasie basin (Podlasie Depression) and regional dyke swarms of close ages from the Swedish Scania, Bornholm and Rügen islands, Oslo rift, Norway, and the Great Whine Sill in northeastern England, were coeval. They have been controlled by the same prominent tectonic event. The Mielnik IG1 dolerite is mafic rock with Mg-number between 52 and 50 composed of the clinopyroxene, olivine-pseudomorph, plagioclase, titanite, magnetite mineral assemblage, indicating relatively evolved melt. This hypabyssal rock has been affected by postmagmatic alteration. The subalkaline basalt composition, enrichment in incompatible trace elements, progressive crustal contamination, including abundance of zircon xenocrysts determines individual characteristics of the Mielnik IG1 dolerite. The revised age of dolerite, emplaced in vicinity of TTZ provides more evidences documenting the reach of the Permo-Carboniferous extension and rifting accompanied by magmatic pulses, that were widespread across Europe including the margin of the EEC incorporated that time into the broad foreland of the Variscan orogen. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the present study is to reconstruct sedimentary conditions of Middle Jurassic rocks that contain siderites to identify the mineral composition of the inserbeds and to recognize the origin of the siderite. Thin inserbeds of siderite rocks occur most frequently within Bajocian siliciclastic deposits and, more rarely, Aalenian and Bathonian. The research material comes from 11 boreholes located in the north and northeastern margins of the Holy Cross Mountains. The research methods included sedimentological analyses, and studies in polarizing and scanning electron microscopes, staining of carbonates, cathodoluminescence, X-ray structural analysis, and stable carbon and oxygen isotopic determinations were used. Middle Jurassic sideritic rocks are most often represented by clayey siderites, which also include muddy and sandy varieties and siderite sandstones. There are also local occurrences of coquinas, claystones, mudstones, and siderite conglomerates. The main component of sideritic rocks is sideroplesite. Berthierine, pistomesite, calcite, and ankerite are important components, too. The action of diagenetic processes of cementation, compaction, replacement, and alteration within the Middle Jurassic deposits was most intense during the eo- and mesodiagenesis. The sedimentological analysis showed that most of the studied siderites were formed in a low-oxygenated marine environment, mainly in the transition zone between the normal and storm wave bases and in the lower and middle shoreface zones. The results of the petrographic, mineralogical, and geochemical studies indicated the origin of the sideritic rocks mainly in the marine environment, with the participation of meteoric water. There were slight differences in the chemical composition of sideroplesite depending on the environment it crystallized in. There was no correlation between the values of the carbon isotope determinations in the sideroplesite and the environmental conditions of its crystallization. Slight differences were visible in the case of the average values of δ18O in the sideroplesite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

(1) Background: The influence of tap water fittings construction and internal pipe-work on the release of heavy metals was investigated. (2) Methods: A statistical approach was applied for the examination of the chemistry of tap water in five different cities in southern Poland. In total, 500 samples were collected (from 100 to 101 samples in each city). The sampling protocol included information on the construction of the water supply network and the physicochemical parameters of measured tap water. (3) Results: The statistical analysis allowed to extract the crucial factors that affect the concentrations of trace elements in tap water. Age of connection, age of tap, age of pipe-work as well as material of connection, material of pipe-work and material of appliance reveal the most significant variability of concentrations observed for As, Al, Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, and Zn. Calculated cancer risks (CRs) decrease with the following order of analysed elements Ni > Cd > Cr > As = Pb and can be associated with the factors that affect the appearance of such elements in tap water. The hazard index (HI) was evaluated as negligible in 59.1% of the sampling points and low in 40.1% for adults. For children, a high risk was observed in 0.2%, medium in 9.0%, negligible in 0.4%, and low for the rest of the analysed samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the interpretation of 2D seismic profiles integrated with surface geological investigations, a mechanism responsible for the formation of a large scale normal fault zone has been proposed. The fault, here referred to as the Rycerka Fault, has a predominantly normal dip-slip component with the detachment surface located at the base of Carpathian units. The fault developed due to the formation of an anticlinal stack within the Dukla Unit overlain by the Magura Units. Stacking of a relatively narrow duplex led to the growth of a dome-like culmination in the lower unit, i.e., the Dukla Unit, and, as a consequence of differential uplift of the unit above and outside the duplex, the upper unit (the Magura Unit) was subjected to stretching. This process invoked normal faulting along the lateral culmination wall and was facilitated by the regional, syn-thrusting arc–parallel extension. Horizontal movement along the fault plane is a result of tear faulting accommodating a varied rate of advancement of Carpathian units. The time of the fault formation is not well constrained; however, based on superposition criterion, the syn -thrusting origin is anticipated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work concerns the content of selected heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn), and determines the effect of absolute altitude on the content of metals in the plants of the Tatra National Park (TNP). The metals were determined in two species of plants, i.e., in the moss (Pleurozium schreberi (Willd.) Mitten) and in the Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst). Plant samples were collected in two test areas every 100 m of the altitude of the area, starting from 1000 m above sea level in the Lake Morskie Oko test area and from 1100 m above sea level in the Kasprowy Wierch test area, and ending at 1400 m above sea level for Lake Morskie Oko, and 1750 m above sea level (the moss) and 1550 m above sea level (the spruce) for Kasprowy Wierch. The two test areas are different from each other in terms of natural and physico-geographical conditions (geological structure, landform, climatic conditions). The conducted research showed that both plant species accumulated greater amounts of heavy metals in the Lake Morskie Oko test area than in the Kasprowy Wierch test area. The moss accumulated higher values of metals compared to the spruce. In both the moss and the spruce, the highest values, exceeding the natural content, were found for Cr, Pb, Cd, and Ni. For these metals, natural values were significantly exceeded: 20 times for Cr; 10 times for Pb; 4 times for Cd; and 3 times for Ni. For both examined areas, an increase in the quantity of accumulated metals in plants was also observed with the increase in altitude. The work focuses on the spreading around of heavy metals and their deposition on plants in protected high mountain (alpine) areas, in connection with altitude. Based on the obtained research results, Spearman's and Kendall's rank correlations were performed, and showed statistically significant relationships between the values for the content of metals and altitude. There are no heavy metal emission sources in the study area, so it is assumed that the metal content in the plants of the TNP is affected by long-range emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conservators extracted and preserved reliquaries hidden in the steps of the right flight of the Holy Stairs erected in the Piarist church crypt in Cracow (Poland). Three items from among 59 reliquaries were selected for specialist analyses: a framed, transparent cross containing a particle of the True Cross, and two opaque beads; an ornamented blue one without a hole and a drilled black one were analysed using non-destructive and non-invasive methods. The methods included scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry, Raman microspectroscopy and X-ray diffractometry. The reliquary cross was found to be made of rock crystal and framed with an alloy of gold, silver and probably copper. The beads are made of glass; the blue bead represents forest plant-ash potash–lime glass and the black one, plant-ash soda–lime glass. Cobalt, probably along with copper, was used to produce the colour of the blue bead; manganese and iron ions were used to produce that of the black bead. Lead was present in both beads as one of the minor components and also as a component of corrosion products on their surfaces and probably also as part of the filler for the ornamentation of the blue bead. Nevertheless, it cannot be ruled out that the lead compounds were introduced intentionally to emphasize the bead ornamentation. The possible place and date of manufacture of the artefacts were also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are numerous traces of mining activity in the Miedzianka Mountain (Świętokrzyskie Mountains, Poland), because copper and silver ores have been mined in this region since at least the 13th century. The history of scientific research on the Miedzianka Mountain ore deposit spans almost 200 years. Almost 40 minerals have been found: ore minerals of Cu and Fe, and also secondary minerals, including carbonates, sulphates and even very rare arsenates, phosphates and vanadates. Three new minerals have been found, staszicite, lubeckite and miedziankite, but their chemical composition has not been precisely determined and therefore their names have not been approved by the International Mineralogical Association (IMA). The Miedzianka Mountain deposit is an important area on the map of educational activities. It is included in the "Świętokrzyskie Archaeological and Geological Trail" as a site of historical (mining and metallurgy) and natural (geological sciences) heritage. Despite the large potential, none of the underground workings (adits and shafts) are currently available to the public. Our research and exploration of the Teresa adit, which is one of the historical underground complexes of the Miedzianka Mountain, show that this adit displays a wide spectrum of topics in the field of mineralogy, geology and mining history. The Teresa adit, which is a 523 m system of underground corridors, contains 270 m of natural karst caves altered by mining works and is constituted of Upper Devonian limestones, locally cut by cherry shales. In several sites of the adit unique features can be observed, such as: (1) old mining works—galleries carved in the rock back in the 19th century; (2) interesting vein mineralization with secondary-colored copper carbonates and multi-colored calcite veins; (3) mineralization with azurite domination; and (4) karst phenomena (coatings, flowstone, dripstones and stalactites) in a cave part of the adit. The sites with unique features suggest that the Teresa adit is highly suitable to be presented to tourists. That is why we propose seven sites on the underground route that could be the basis for further projects to create a "geotouristic trail" in the Teresa adit. The proposal to make the Teresa adit available to tourists is in line with the tendency to protect the post-industrial landscape associated with former mining activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phosphorus (P)-rich secondary raw materials can provide a valuable base for modern mineral fertilizers, provided that the new formulations do not load the soil–plant system with potentially toxic elements. Fertilizers from sewage sludge ash (SSA) and/or animal bones, activated by phosphorus-solubilizing bacteria (Bacillus megaterium or Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans), were tested in field experiments in north-eastern Poland. The reference provided treatments with superphosphate and treatment without phosphorus fertilization. In one experiment, all P-fertilizers were applied at a P dose of 21 kg·ha−1, and in the other three experiments, three P doses were adopted: 17.6, 26.4, and 35.2 kg·ha−1. The effect of recycled fertilizers on the content of arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn) in the soil, in wheat grain and straw (test plant), weeds, and post-harvest residues was investigated. The application of recycled fertilizers in P amounts up to 35.2 kg·ha−1 did not change the As, Cr, Ni, Cu, or Zn contents in the soil and plant biomass. The contents of these elements in soil were below the permissible levels for arable land in Poland. Their concentrations in wheat grain and straw did not exceed the permissible or suggested limits for plant material to be used for food and feed, while in the weed and post-harvest residue biomass, they usually fell within the biological plant variability ranges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research was conducted on historical copper slags from Leszczyna and Kondratów in Lower Silesia, Poland. The area, formerly known as the Old Copper Basin, was a mining and smelting centre between the 18th and 20th centuries, with a dominant period in the 19th century. Cu-carbonates and residual chalcocite dominate local strata-bound copper deposits. Ore bodies are restricted to carbonate strata. A geochemical and mineralogical study of slag samples from four research sites allowed us to establish that a low amount of sulphur in slags results from S-poor ores, and pyrite with gypsum was implemented as reducing agents. Arkose sandstones served as a flux. During smelting, oxygen availability was limited, and temperature exceeded 1200 °C (18th- and 19th-century smelting) and 1400 °C (20th-century smelting). Calculated viscosity indexes mark the low efficiency of metal separation between the silicate and metallic phases. The skeletal and dendritic form of the crystals proved that slag melt was relatively rapidly cooled after formation, usually in air conditions. We estimated that approx. 2000 m3 of slag was created during the leading smelter (Stilles Glück) activity. The research provided various details of the historical copper smelting technological process in Leszczyna and Kondratów. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aquatic systems are a very important part of the environment, which requires special attention due to the constant deterioration of the quality and quantity of water globally. Aquatic environments in Poland are mostly affected by the mining and smelting industry, which is especially visible in the south of the country, and one of such anthropogenically affected rivers is the Wilga—a small tributary of the Vistula River (the biggest river in Poland). For many years, the catchment area of the Wilga River accommodated a functioning industry that was based on the use of metals (fur, leather processing, foundry and galvanizing plants), as well as the "Solvay" Kraków Soda Works, which have left behind soda waste piles, and currently, along the course of the river, there are ongoing works connected with the construction of the "Łagiewnicka Route", which required the relocation of a section of the Wilga river bed, among other things. To determine the general condition of the river, selected physico-chemical parameters were analysed in the water (pH, conductivity, anions: Cl−, N-NO3, P-PO4 and SO4 and cations: Al, Ba, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, Sr and Zn), suspended particulate matter and sediment (Al, Ba, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, Sr and Zn). Samples were taken before the relocation of the river bed (2019) and after its relocation (2021). The obtained data were compared with recorded historical data and this revealed that over the years, the condition of the Wilga environment has improved significantly, especially in terms of the contamination of sediments with metals, the concentrations of which fell several ten-fold. This is attributed to the closure of most industrial plants located within the river's catchment area and to the modernization and legal regulation of the functioning of the remaining plants. An effect of leachates from the soda waste piles on the waters of Wilga has been observed (in the form of higher pH, mineralization and concentration of chlorides), which has however gradually decreased over time. However, no visible impact of road transport on the river's environment has been observed, or any impact of the construction works or the related relocation of the river bed for that matter. The river should still be classified as polluted, but the level of this pollution has decreased significantly and the qualitative composition of the pollution has also changed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water resources are influenced by many anthropogenic pollutants, which may migrate into the environment. The Bzura River is one of the rivers strongly impacted by human activity e.g., waste landfills and former industrial plants. The objective of this study was to assess the spatial-temporal variability of trace metals in river water and sediments and to recognize the main sources of pollution. An investigation was carried out on the 120 km section, during two hydrological years. Concentrations of Ni, Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn, Fe, and Mn were determined by atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS). The basic statistics were supported by principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis (CA). Generally, only part of the results exceeded the WHO, USEPA, and Polish threshold values. However, one hotspot burdened by nickel was found. The spatial trend of Ni indicates long-distance migration. The PCA and CA confirmed that the Ni mainly comes from the old industrial waste landfill. Variability of the remaining metals was affected by more mixed sources. None of the metals showed any consistent temporal pattern. The PCA revealed that the anthropogenic factor explained over 50% of the variability in both years; therefore, intensive monitoring of the water river quality is still required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article contains detailed petrographic studies, which covered a coarse and medium-grain gravel fraction of two layers of glacial till (units ŁS II and ŁS IV) and two layers of sand-gravelly outwash deposits (units ŁS I and ŁS III) related to the Odranian Glaciation (MIS6, Saalian) in Łubienica-Superunki, North Mazovian Lowland, central Poland. Additionally, the indicator erratics were identified to indicate their Scandinavian source areas and the directions of the ice sheet transgressions. This case study is discussed against the background of similar sediments and forms from the same age but from other places in the Polish Lowlands. Regardless of the facies types and fractions, crystalline rocks dominated over all other petrographic groups in all samples. The most common were the indicator erratics derived from the Åland Islands, followed by those from the south-eastern area of Sweden (Småland) and from Dalarna in central Sweden. Amongst the erratics of limited indicative significance, the most common were Lower Palaeozoic limestones and the Jotnian red sandstones. The complex petrographic analyses point to the dipartite nature of the studied profile. This separateness was confirmed by the TBC: 59.1–59.2° N and 18.0–18.2° E for the lower units and 58.8–59.4° N and 17.3–17.9° E for the upper ones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrocarbon exploration under thrust belts is a challenging frontier globally. In this work, 1-D thermal maturity modeling of the Paleozoic–Mesozoic basement in the northern margin of the Western Outer Carpathians was carried out to better explain the thermal history of source rocks that influenced hydrocarbon generation. The combination of Variscan burial and post-Variscan heating due to elevated heat flow may have caused significant heating in the Paleozoic basement in the pre-Middle Jurassic period. However, the most likely combined effect of Permian-Triassic burial and Late Triassic–Early Jurassic increase of heat flow caused the reaching of maximum paleotemperature. The main phase of hydrocarbon generation in Paleozoic source rocks developed in pre-Middle Jurassic times. Therefore, generated hydrocarbons from Ordovician and Silurian source rocks were lost before reservoirs and traps were formed in the Late Mesozoic. The Miocene thermal overprint due to the Carpathian overthrust probably did not significantly change the thermal maturity of organic matter in the Paleozoic–Mesozoic strata. Thus, it can be concluded that petroleum accumulations in the Late Jurassic and Cenomanian reservoirs of the foreland were charged later, mainly by source rocks occurring within the thrustbelt, i.e., Oligocene Menilite Shales. Finally, this work shows that comprehensive mineralogical and geochemical studies are an indispensable prerequisite of any petroleum system modelling because their results could influence petroleum exploration of new oil and gas fields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Total metal content is not representing its availability and thus does not provide the details about potential environmental hazards, including the impact on soil enzyme activities. To understand metal availability, chemical fractions must be considered. The goal of this study was to evaluate the influence of Ni, Cr, and Pb fractions on the enzymatic activity of soils cultivated by the simplified method, which is rare not only in Poland. The percentage of studied metals in fractions was determined according to the Community Bureau of Reference (BCR) method. Four fractions were extracted: acid soluble and exchangeable (F1), reducible (F2), oxidizable (F3), and residual (F4). The highest Ni and Cr percentages were noted in fraction F4, and for Pb, they were noted in fraction F2. The smallest Ni and Pb percentages were observed in fraction F1 (most mobile) and for Cr, they were observed in fraction F2. In soil samples collected in spring, the significant relationship was stated between F1/Ni/dehydrogenase, F2/Pb/dehydrogenase, and F2/Pb/urease. Such dependence occurred between F1/Ni/phosphatase and F4/Ni/urease during summer as well as between F1/Ni/phosphatase and F4/Ni/dehydrogenase in autumn. F1/Pb caused a drop in phosphatase activity, whereas F4/Cr influenced its increase. The study results indicated that metal fractions influenced phosphatase activity the most, while protease activity in the soil was not affected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pre-Mesozoic exotic crystalline blocks within the Outer Carpathian flysch have potential to unravel the nature of their eroded basement source(s) and to reconstruct the Paleozoic–Precambrian history of the Protocarpathians. Strongly tectonized Campanian–Maastrichtian grey marls in the Subsilesian Nappe of the Outer Western Carpathians in Poland contain a variety of different lithology types, including granitoids and andesites. Petrological investigations coupled with zircon and apatite U-Pb dating were performed on crystalline (subvolcanic) exotic blocks from a locality in the Subsilesian Nappe. U-Pb zircon dating yields magmatic crystallization ages of c. 293 Ma for the microgranitoid and c. 310 Ma for the andesite block, with inherited zircon cores yielding Archean, Paleoproterozoic, Mesoproterozoic and Cadomian ages. Whole rock trace element and Nd isotope data imply that the melt source was composed of a significant Neoproterozoic crustal component in both the microgranite and andesite. The Late Carboniferous–Permian magmatic activity likely continues outside the Carpathian Belt and can be linked to a Late Paleozoic transtensional zone, which is a continuation of the Lubliniec–Kraków Zone that extends under the Carpathians to Moesia. This Late Paleozoic transtensional zone was probably reactivated during the Late Cretaceous under a transpressional regime within the Żegocina tectonic zone, which caused the uplift of the Subsilesian Ridge and intensive erosion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Land reclamation is a common practice leading to the restoration of areas affected by industrial activity. Soil studies in reclaimed areas are very useful to determine the effectiveness of reclamation works. The goal of the study was to investigate soil properties, mineral composition, total concentrations of Zn, Pb, Cd and As and chemical forms of these elements in order to assess the success of land reclamation of the abandoned mine tailing disposal site of the "Trzebionka" Zn-Pb mine in Trzebinia, southern Poland. The disposal site was reclaimed by covering tailings with a layer of inert material with a thickness up to 25 cm. The topsoil of the studied soil profiles was comprised of sandy loamy/loamy materials and the subsoil was comprised of sandy tailing materials. The soils were characterized by a neutral or slightly alkaline reaction due to the high content of carbonates. The dominant mineral in the subsoil was dolomite. The studied soils were considerably contaminated with Zn, Pb, Cd and As. A high load of mobile Zn, Pb and Cd was typical of the subsoil material. The reclamation layer does not provide sufficient isolation of toxic tailings from the environment and there is still a high risk of element uptake by plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fluid inclusions were studied in rocks from different wells from the Barnówko–Mostno–Buszewo (BMB), the largest oil field in Poland and from the Lubiatów field. Sampling was performed at depths between about 3120–3220 m and 3221–3256 m, respectively. Different minerals (dolomite, calcite, anhydrite, quartz) reveal the presence of aqueous (AQFI) and hydrocarbon (HCFI) inclusions, the differentiation of which was checked by UV fluorescence and microthermometry. Inclusions occur in different abundances and are of variable character. The microthermometric studies of fluid inclusions resulted in the determination of temperatures of eutectic melting, ice melting, and homogenization. Based on the results obtained, three types of inclusions have been found. Two-phase non-fluorescent inclusions (AQFI) contain brines of differentiated salinity (from about 6 to 10 and from about 17 to 22 wt% NaCl equivalent). Two-phase fluorescent inclusions (HCFI 1) contain light mature oil of paraffin character. The oil is characterized by API gravity of about 41–42 degrees. Small one-phase non-fluorescent inclusions (HCFI 2) that homogenize in deep freezing contain methane with admixtures. The abundance of inclusions varies, depending on the mineral or well. They have been discussed in the context of hydrocarbon migration and accumulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The chalcocite group minerals are widely distributed among different hydrothermally affected rocks, the oxidized zone of copper sulfide deposits, or may be even crystalline from supersaturated volcanic gases. Some of the chalcocite group minerals form the main Cu orebodies. Djurleite (Cu31S16) is a rare member of the chalcocite group, with a very complex structure. The physical and chemical similarities between all members of the group make them almost unidentifiable by macroscopic and microscopic methods. In this study, Ag-bearing djurleite from the Kupferschiefer deposits, Lower Silesia, Poland, is characterized by EMPA (Electron Microprobe Analyses), XRD (X-Ray Diffraction), and Raman spectroscopy. Djurleite from the investigated site has the following general, average chemical formula: Cu30.86Ag0.1Fe0.04S16. The Ag content is up to 0.55 wt.%, while Fe is up to 0.19 wt.%. The presence of djurleite confirms a low-temperature (~90 °C), hydrothermal origin of the Cu-Ag deposit in Kupferschiefer, which is consistent with previously studies. Moreover, the authors believe that Ag-rich djurleite may often be mistaken for Ag-rich chalcocite, which used to be one of the main Ag-bearing minerals in the orebody from the Cu-Ag deposit in the Fore-Sudetic Monocline. However, the confirmation of such a statement requires more samples, which should be studied in detail. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pollution of river bottom sediments with heavy metals (HMs) has emerged as a main environmental issue related to intensive anthropopressure on the water environment. In this context, the risk of harmful effects of the HMs presence in the bottom sediments of the Warta River, the third longest river in Poland, has been assessed. The concentrations of Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb in the river bottom sediments collected at 24 sample collection stations along the whole river length have been measured and analyzed. Moreover, in the GIS environment, a method predicting variation of HMs concentrations along the whole river length, not at particular sites, has been proposed. Analysis of the Warta River bottom sediment pollution with heavy metals in terms of the indices: the Geoaccumulation Index (Igeo), Enrichment Factor (EF), Pollution Load Index (PLI), and Metal Pollution Index (MPI), has proved that, in 2016, the pollution was heavier than in 2017. Assessment of the potential toxic effects of HMs accumulated in bottom sediments, made on the basis of Threshold Effect Concentration (TEC), Midpoint Effect Concentration (MEC), and Probable Effect Concentration (PEC) values, and the Toxic Risk Index (TRI), has shown that the ecological hazard in 2017 was much lower. Cluster analysis revealed two main groups of sample collection stations at which bottom sediments showed similar chemical properties. Changes in classification of particular sample collection stations into the two groups analyzed over a period of two subsequent years indicated that the main impact on the concentrations of HMs could have their point sources in urbanized areas and river fluvial process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]