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This book contains the papers selected by the Scientific Committee and represented at the XIII International Conference'Solar-Terrestrial Relations and Physics of Earthquake Precursors', which was hold at the Institute of Cosmophysical Research and Radio Wave Propagation, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Kamchatka. The papers describe the investigation results in the fields of atmosphere, ionosphere and magnetosphere physics. Mechanisms of transformation of solar wind energy into the energy of magnetospheric-ionospheric processes, effects of the processes in the Earth core on the lower and upper atmosphere, seismo-electromagnetic, seismo-electric and seismo-acoustic effects at different frequency ranges in the Earth crust, atmosphere and ionosphere are under consideration. Modern methods for geophysical data collection, processing, transfer and exchange as well as organisation issues of seismic activity monitoring are presented.The Conference'Solar-Terrestrial Relations and Physics of Earthquake Precursors'has 25 years of history. Scientists from Russia, Japan, Hungary, China, India, USA and other countries participate in it. In a traditional way, the Conference includes three sections: atmosphere physics, geophysical fields and their interaction, physics of earthquake precursors.

Despite their global importance, little is known about the few existing examples of impacts into marine environments and icy targets. They are among the least understood and studied parts of impact crater geology. The icy impacts are also of great importance in understanding the developments of the outer planets and their satellites such as Mars or Europa. Furthermore, the impact mechanisms, crater formation and collapse, melt production and the ejecta distribution are scarcely known for impact on targets other than the'classical'solid silicates of the continental crust. The reaction of water and ice to impacts clearly deserves a more thorough study. The understanding of impact effects and consequences in the case of aqueous hits, soft sediments and icy targets has not been thoroughly explored and comprises the main focus of this book. A number of papers in the field of hypervelocity impacts on ice are included. These cover a review of available literature in the field of laboratory studies of such impacts, large impact structures on Titan, predicting impact cratering on a comet nucleus, and a novel report on the survival of bacteria fired at hypervelocity into icy surfaces. This latter paper is concerned with astrobiology and in particular Panspermia (natural migration of life through space).

This IMA Volume in Mathematics and its Applications TIME SERIES ANALYSIS AND APPLICATIONS TO GEOPHYSICAL SYSTEMS contains papers presented at a very successful workshop on the same title. The event which was held on November 12-15, 2001 was an integral part of the IMA 2001-2002 annual program on'Mathematics in the Geosciences.'We would like to thank David R. Brillinger (Department of Statistics, Uni­ versity of California, Berkeley), Enders Anthony Robinson (Department of Earth and Environmental Engineering, Columbia University), and Fred­ eric Paik Schoenberg (Department of Statistics, University of California, Los Angeles) for their superb role as workshop organizers and editors of the proceedings. We are also grateful to Robert H. Shumway (Department of Statistics, University of California, Davis) for his help in organizing the four-day event. We take this opportunity to thank the National Science Foundation for its support of the IMA. Series Editors Douglas N. Arnold, Director of the IMA Fadil Santosa, Deputy Director of the IMA v PREFACE This volume contains a collection of papers that were presented dur­ ing the Workshop on Time Series Analysis and Applications to Geophysical Systems at the Institute for Mathematics and its Applications (IMA) at the University of Minnesota from November 12-15, 2001. This was part of the IMA Thematic Year on Mathematics in the Geosciences, and was the last in a series of four Workshops during the Fall Quarter dedicated to Dynamical Systems and Ergodic Theory.

Earthquakes and Atmospheric Hazards contains a selection of papers that were presented as part of the Sixth International Symposium on Natural and Man-Made Hazards (HAZARDS-96) held in Toronto, Canada during July, 1996. The Symposium was very timely, given the large number of natural disasters that have occurred in various parts of the world during the 1990s, the United Nations'International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR). The human reaction to these disasters has varied widely from one event to the next and the economic and social costs have been immense with damage running into billions of dollars. Having in everyone's mind the Northridge, California (1994) and the Kobe, Japan (1995) earthquakes, the volcanoes in the Philippines, the cyclones and related storm surges in Bangladesh, and the floods in North America and Europe caused by heavy rains, the Symposium attracted more than one hundred papers covering various aspects of these events. The eleven papers included in this volume deal with the scientific and management issues of those earthquakes and atmospheric hazards that occurred during the late 1990s, with emphasis on the preparedness aspects. A summary report of the HAZARDS-96 Symposium and recommendations adopted by the participants is also included. Earthquakes and Atmospheric Hazards forms an excellent reference for scientists, students, engineers, the insurance industry, authorities specializing in public safety and natural hazards preparedness and mitigation plans.

This special volume contains a selection of papers that were presented as part of the Seventh International Symposium on Natural and Man-Made Hazards (HAZARDS-98), held in Chania, Crete Island, Greece, during May 1998. The Symposium attracted broad international interest because many cases of natural disaster events, such as earthquakes, tsunamis, storm surges, forest fires, etc., that occurred in several parts of the world during the 1990s were presented not only for their physics but also from the point of view of their impact on society and their environmental consequences. Among these cases are the 1997 Red River Valley flood in Canada and the large earthquake of 18 November 1997, in Zakynthos, Greece. In addition, the volume contains contributions that apply advanced statistical methods and artificial intelligence techniques, such as GIS, and systems analysis to approach the description of physical processes, the discrimination of experimental data and the assessment and management of risk. Audience: This volume forms an excellent reference for scientists, students, engineers, the insurance industry, authorities specializing in public safety and natural hazards preparedness and mitigation plans.

This book is intended not only for meteorologists but also for scientists in other fields, for teachers, and for interested lay persons who do not want to acquaint themselves with its topics through an academic textbook. In addition to painting a picture of the stratosphere, we want to show how the approach to an understanding of Nature's complex structure of tell is along; winding, unexpected paths. At the beginning of the 20th century observations were accumulating which were essential to understanding climate and its variability. but they could not be treated systematically because important links were missing. among them the realization that there is a stratosphere or an ozone layer. When, however, one reads the scientific papers from the turn of the century and judges them on the basis of our present knowledge --which llndoubtedlr is still incomplete - one must admire the early workers in this field for the care and imagination with which they approached the subject. The discoveries we describe in this book have been important to the progress of meteorology; and it is apposite here to quote Kuhn (1962) on the course science normally takes after a discovery.

Volcanic eruptions are the clear and dramatic expression of dynamic processes in planet Earth. The author, one of the most profound specialists in the field of volcanology, explains in a concise and easy to understand manner the basics and most recent findings in the field. Based on over 300 color figures and the model of plate tectonics, the book offers insight into the generation of magmas and the occurrence and origin of volcanoes. The analysis and description of volcanic structures is followed by process oriented chapters discussing the role of magmatic gases as well as explosive mechanisms and sedimentation of volcanic material. The final chapters deal with the forecast of eruptions and their influence on climate. Students and scientists of a broad range of fields will use this book as an interesting and attractive source of information. Laypeople will find it a highly accessible and graphically beautiful way to acquire a state-of-the-art foundation in this fascinating field.'Volcanism by Hans-Ulrich Schmincke has photos of the best quality I have ever seen in a text on the subject… In addition, the schematic figures in their wide range of styles are clear, colorful, and simplified to emphasize the most important factors while including all significant features…'I have really enjoyed reading and rereading Schmincke's book. It fills a great gap in texts available for teaching any basic course in volcanology. No other book I know of has the depth and breadth of Volcanism… I have shared Volcanism with my colleagues to their significant benefit, and I am more convinced of its value for a broad range of Earth and planetary scientists. Undoubtedly, I will use Volcanism for my upcoming courses in volcanology. I will never hesitate to recommend it to others. Many geoscientists from very different subdisciplines will benefit from adding the book to their personal libraries. Schmincke has done us all a great service by undertaking the grueling task of writing the book – and it is much better that he alone wrote it.'Stanley N. Williams, ASU Tempe, AZ (Physics Today, April 2005)'Schmincke is a German volcanologist with an international reputation, and he has done us all a great favour because he sensibly channelled his fascination with volcanoes into writing this beautifully illustrated book... [he] tackles the entire geological setting of volcanoes within the earth and the processes that form them... And, with more than 400 colour illustrations, including a huge number of really excellent new diagrams, cutaway models and maps, plus a rich glossary and references, this book is accessible to anyone with an interest in the subject.'New Scientist (March 2004)'The science of volcanology has made tremendous progress over the past 40 years, primarily because of technological advances and because each tragic eruption has led researchers to recognize the processes behind such serious hazards. Yet scientists are still learning a great deal because of photographs that either capture those processes in action or show us the critical factors left behind in the rock record.Volcanism by Hans-Ulrich Schmincke has photos of the best quality I have ever seen in a text on the subject. I found myself wishing that I had had the photo of Nicaragua's Masaya volcano, which was the subject of my dissertation, but it was Schmincke who was able to include it in his book. In addition, the schematic figures in their wide range of styles are clear, colorful, and simplified to emphasize the most important factors while including all significant features. The book's paper is of such high quality that at times I felt I had turned two pages rather than one. I have really enjoyed reading and rereading Schmincke's book. It fills a great gap in texts available for teaching any basic course in volcanology. No other book I know of

This book includes new results of theoretical and experimental studies of various scales of the processes occurring on the earth including the lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere. Intensive development of research in these areas is due to several factors: 1) the widespread introduction of computer technology, allowing the calculation of complex phenomena, 2) the invention and improvement of a new generation of geophysical instruments such as remote observation systems based on ships, aircraft, and satellites, providing a large amount of data to objectively reflect a broad picture of the processes, 3) the development of measurement techniques, creating opportunities for controllable and reproducible laboratory data acquisition for generation of new ideas and concepts. Their recent developments have facilitated our research and understanding of these academic fields. The book enriches the understanding of the geophysical processes taking place in various environments (lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere), including the anthropogenic one, and it further contributes to their development. This collected research is a valuable resource for specialists working in the oil, gas, and engineering industry to improve their understandings of the field.

This book includes new results of theoretical and experimental studies of various scales of the processes occurring on the earth including the lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere. Intensive development of research in these areas is due to several factors: 1) the widespread introduction of computer technology, allowing the calculation of complex phenomena; 2) the invention and improvement of a new generation of geophysical instruments such as remote observation systems based on ships, aircraft, and satellites, providing a large amount of data to objectively reflect a broad picture of the processes; and 3) the development of measurement techniques, creating opportunities for controllable and reproducible laboratory data acquisition for generation of new ideas and concepts. Their recent developments have facilitated our research and understanding of these academic fields. The book enriches the understanding of the geophysical processes taking place in various environments (lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere), including the anthropogenic one, and it further contributes to their development. This book is a valuable resource for specialists working in the oil, gas, and engineering industry to improve their understandings of the field.

Problems of Geocosmos conference proceedings series provide a snapshot of current research in a broad area of Earth Sciences carried out in Russia and elsewhere. Themes covered include solar physics, physics of magnetosphere, ionosphere and atmosphere, solar-terrestrial coupling links, seismology and geodynamics, paleomagnetism and rock magnetism, as well as cross-disciplinary studies. The proceedings are carefully edited, providing a panoramic outlook of a broad area of Earth Sciences. The readership includes colleague researchers, students and early career scientists. The proceedings will help the readers to look at their research fields from various points of view. Problems of Geocosmos conferences are held by Earth Physics Department, St. Petersburg University bi-annually since 1994. It is one of the largest forums of this kind in Russia/former Soviet Union attracting up to 200 researchers in Earth and magnetospheric physics.

Dieser Buchtitel ist Teil des Digitalisierungsprojekts Springer Book Archives mit Publikationen, die seit den Anfängen des Verlags von 1842 erschienen sind. Der Verlag stellt mit diesem Archiv Quellen für die historische wie auch die disziplingeschichtliche Forschung zur Verfügung, die jeweils im historischen Kontext betrachtet werden müssen. Dieser Titel erschien in der Zeit vor 1945 und wird daher in seiner zeittypischen politisch-ideologischen Ausrichtung vom Verlag nicht beworben.

There are several billion stars in the Milky Way galaxy. One of them is the middle-aged G2V yellow dwarf that rules our lives. The Sun Today discusses the Sun's appearance and composition, its internal workings, and the various kinds of radiation it emits, and it puts forward a novel explanation for coronal heating. The book draws on the findings of telescopic observation, space missions, and technical and theoretical advances in many fields, and shows why we need to know more if we are to understand and manage our foothold in the Universe. From the reviews of other books by Claudio Vita-Finzi: The Sun – A User's Manual (2008) ….this, jargon-free, concise, beautifully illustrated and eminently readable book… D.W. Hughes, Times Literary Supplement Solar History (2013)....a book that is supremely informative, intensely stimulating and enjoyable to read... Ian Seymour, Astronomy Now A History of the Solar System (2016)...there is a huge amount of useful information in this book that would benefit anyone who needed more detail than is available in a typical popular science title. Brian Clegg, Popular Science

The Advanced Study Institute Ice Physics in the Natural and Endangered Environ­ ment was held at Acquafredda di Maratea, Italy, from September 7 to 19, 1997. The ASI was designed to study the broad range of ice science and technology, and it brought together an appropriately interdisciplinary group of lecturers and students to study the many facets of the subject. The talks and poster presentations explored how basic molecular physics of ice have important environmental consequences, and, con­ versely, how natural phenomena present new questions for fundamental study. The of lectures discusses these linkages, in order that overall unity of following sunimary the subject and this volume can be perceived. Not all of the lecturers and participants were able to contribute a written piece, but their active involvement was crucial to the success of the Institute and thereby influenced the content of the volume. We began the Institute by retracing the history of the search for a microscopic un­ derstanding of melting. Our motivation was straightforward. Nearly every phenome­ non involving ice in the environment is influenced by the change of phase from solid to liquid or vice-versa. Hence, a sufficiently deep physical picture of the melting tran­ sition enriches our appreciation of a vast array of geophysical and technical problems.

The present monograph as well as the next one (Dorman, M2005) is a result of more than 50 years working in cosmic ray (CR) research. After graduation in December 1950 Moscow Lomonosov State University (Nuclear and Elementary Particle Physics Division, the Team of Theoretical Physics), my supervisor Professor D. I. Blokhintsev planned for me, as a winner of a Red Diploma, to continue my education as an aspirant (a graduate student) to prepare for Ph. D. in his very secret Object in the framework of what was in those time called the Atomic Problem. To my regret the KGB withheld permission, and I, together with other Jewish students who had graduated Nuclear Divisions of Moscow and Leningrad Universities and Institutes, were faced with a real prospect of being without any work. It was our good fortune that at that time there was being brought into being the new Cosmic Ray Project (what at that time was also very secret, but not as secret as the Atomic Problem), and after some time we were directed to work on this Project. It was organized and headed by Prof. S. N. Vernov (President of All-Union Section of Cosmic Rays) and Prof. N. V. Pushkov (Director of IZMIRAN); Prof. E. L. Feinberg headed the theoretical part of the Project.

An atmospheric phenomenon is considered as'explained'when we have succeeded in deducing it on the basis of accepted principles of physics. (H. Ertel, Methods and problems of dynamical meteorolo­ gy,p. l) Until recently, noctilucent clouds were regarded merely as a curious atmos­ pheric phenomenon, the occurrence of which aroused only limited scientific attention. However, in the last two decades the interest they have been given has markedly increased. The clouds, usually pale blue in colour, may be seen on a clear night at high latitudes. Typical examples are illustrated in the book. Clouds looking like these in daytime would be classified as cirrostratus. What sets noctilucent clouds apart is their occurrence in the middle of the night, their very obvious pale blue colour, and their disappearance into the dawn close to the onset of civil twilight when the Sun is 6° below the horizon. as being set apart from ordinary Noctilucent clouds were first recognized clouds in 1884/1885 and in a series of sightings that followed their return in the summer of 1885. That year marked the beginning of observations and the interpretation of twilight phenomena. The impetus came from the extraordi­ nary Krakatoa eruption, which was not only one of the most spectacular volcanic eruptions in recorded history, but which also turned out to be a startling event in atmospheric science with repercussions even in our time.

Uncertainty for Everyone The one thing that is certain about the world is that the world is uncertain. I have here, the question that apart of the matter, living matter, has to resolve in each and every one of its moments of existance. The environment of a living being is apart of the living being where it turns out, the rest of the living beings live. This is the drama of life on earth. Every living individual debates with his environment, exchanging matter, energy and information in the hope of staying alive, the same as all living beings who share that same environment. The adven­ ture of a living being (of all living beings) is to maintain reasonable independ­ ence in face ofthe fluctuations ofuncertainty within the environment. The range of restrictions and mutual relationships is colossal. How is the tran­ seendental pretension of staying alive regulated? There is an equation imposed by the laws ofthermodynamics and the mathematical theory ofinformation about the interaction ofa living being with his environment which we could state like this: The complexity 01 a living individual plus his capacity for anticipation in re­ spect to his environment is identical to the uncertainty of the environmentplus the capacity of that living being to change the environment.

In this book the authors consider the natural environment as an integrated system and describe a cohesive approach to its modelling and prediction. The book emphasises the mathematical representation and numerical simulation of the interactions between the various environmental components and those of the environmental processes, including physical, chemical and biological. Furthermore, it summarises some of the recent progress and new developments in the modelling and prediction of the atmosphere, ocean, land surface, continental hydrosphere, cryosphere, etc. The authors also explore new theoretical frameworks in environmental prediction, such as systems analysis and statistical-dynamic modelling. The applications of remote sensing and geographic information systems in environmental modelling and prediction are discussed. Examples of integrated environmental modelling are given

Following the rapid developments in the UV-B measurement techniques and the rapidly growing research in the field in the late 80's and early 90's, we organized a large gathering of distinguished experts in a NATO Advanced Study Institute, held in Halkidiki, Greece on October, 2-11. 1995. The Institute was organized so as to include state of the art lectures on most aspects of solar ultraviolet radiation and its effects. This was achieved by extended lectures and discussions given in five sessions by 27 lecturers and a demonstration of filed measurements and calibration techniques at the end of the Institute. The ASI began with the sun and fundamentals on solar radiative emissions and their variability in time and continued with the interaction of solar Ultraviolet with the atmosphere through the complex scattering processes and photochemical reactions involved. Particular emphasis was given to changes in atmospheric composition imposed by different manifestations of the solar activity cycle. as well as on the modelling of radiative transfer through the atmosphere and the ocean under variable environmental conditions. Overviews on the ozone issue. its monitoring and variability were extensively discussed with emphasis on the observed acceleration of ozone decline in the early 90's. This acceleration had as a consequence, significant increases in UV-B radiation observed at a few world-wide distributed stations.

This volume is the result of the International IDNDR-Conference on Early Warning Systems for the Reduction of Natural Disasters, held at the Geo­ ForschungsZentrum in Potsdam, Germany from 7-11 September 1998. En­ dorsed by the United Nations International Decade for Natural Disasters Reduc­ tion which had been established by the United Nations General Assembly in December 1989, it was jointly organised by the GeoForschungsZentrum Pots­ dam and the German IDNDR-Committee. The event brought together 370 scientists, public officials, and representatives of the United Nations system, non-governmental and international organisations and diverse professional, commercial, and civic individuals from 86 countries. Together they comprised a wide and multidisciplinary range of experience, as both providers and users of early warning and preparedness information related to natural disasters. The Potsdam Early Warning Conference represented the first major thematic com­ ponent of IDNDR's concluding evaluation. It provides recommendations to en­ sure disaster reduction into the 21st Century. The conference dealt with an essential goal of the decade, expressed as a ma­ jor priority of the Decade's Scientific and Technical Committee. It was included in the Plan of Action adopted at the 1994 World Conference on Natural Disas­ ter Reduction in Yokohama, Japan, and was the subject of three subsequent UN General Assembly resolutions on the improved effectiveness of early warning between 1994 and 1997. The German Minister for Foreign Affairs, Mr.

This book is a considerable outgrowth of lecture notes on Mechanics of en­ vironmentally related systems I, which I hold since more than ten years in the Department of Mechanics at the Darmstadt University of Technology for upper level students majoring in mechanics, mathematics, physics and the classical engineering sciences. These lectures form a canon of courses over three semesters in which I present the foundations of continuum physics (first semester), those of physical oceanography and limnology (second semester) and those of soil, snow and ice physics in the geophysical context (third semester). The intention is to build an understanding of the mathemati­ cal foundations of the mentioned geophysical research fields combined with a corresponding understanding of the regional, but equally also the global, processes that govern the climate dynamics of our globe. The present book contains the material (and extensions of it) of the first semester; it gives an introduction into continuum thermomechanics, the methods of dimensional analysis and turbulence modeling. All these themes belong today to the every­ day working methods of not only environmental physicists but equally also those engineers, who are confronted with continuous systems of solid and fluid mechanics, soil mechanics and generally the mechanics and thermody­ namics of heterogeneous systems. The book addresses a broad spectrum of researchers, both at Universities and Research Laboratories who wish to fa­ miliarize themselves with the methods of'rational'continuum physics, and students from engineering and classical continuum physics.

Turbulence theory is one of the most intriguing parts of fluid mechanics and many outstanding scientists have tried to apply their knowledge to the development of the theory and to offer useful recommendations for solution of some practical problems. In this monograph the author attempts to integrate many specific approaches into the unified theory. The basic premise is the simple idea that a small eddy, that is an element of turbulent meso-structure, possesses its own dynamics as an object rotating with its own spin velocity and obeying the Newton dynamics of a finite body. A number of such eddies fills a coordinate cell, and the angular momentum balance has to be formulated for this spatial cell. If the cell coincides with a finite­ difference element at a numerical calculation and if the external length scale is large, this elementary volume can be considered as a differential one and a continuum parameterization has to be used. Nontrivial angular balance is a consequence of the asymmetrical Reynolds stress action at the oriented sides of an elementary volume. At first glance, the averaged dyad of velocity components is symmetrical, == However, if averaging is performed over the plane with normal nj, the principle of commutation is lost. As a result, the stress tensor asymmetry j is determined by other factors that participate in the angular momentum balance. This is the only possibility to determine a stress in engineering.

All aspects of our lives are influenced by the weather and especially severe weather events - such considerations tend to become more pertinent as such weather events may become more frequent with global warming. It is evident that better weather forecasts for the next few hours, days or even weeks have a high economic value for our developed and densely populated world. Ground and air traffic management benefits, as does the construction industry, tourism, agriculture and big outdoor events such as the Olympic games. Weather fore­ casting nowadays relies on numerical weather prediction models. The reliability and accuracy of forecasts however depends not only on the quality and resolution of these models, but to a high degree on the density and quality of input data from observations. Weather radar measurements complement current data such as ground observations and soundings at smaller scales and satellite observations on larger scales. Targeted weather radar measurements additionally give detailed insight into the processes governing the developments of, for example, frontal systems and thunderstorms, which is needed for improving the model quality by comparing the observations with model forecasts. Weather radar observations on their own can be used directly for short-term forecasting, called nowcasting, just by observ­ ing the developments of weather systems some 100 km around and extrapolating the observations with knowledge of their typical behaviour. Finally, with reliable quantitative measurements of area precipitation by radar, flood forecasts will be improved.

The present volume is the result of activities within the scientific programme'Response of the Earth System to Impact Processes'(IMP ACT) of the European Science Foundation (ESF). The ESF is an association of 67 national member organisations devoted to scientific research in 24 European countries. The IMPACT programme is aimed at understanding meteorite impact processes and their effects on the Earth System. Launched in 1998 for a duration of 5 years, the programme is now supported by 15 ESF membership countries. The programme of meteorite impact research and operates through deals with all aspects workshops, exchange programs, and short courses. The 4th IMPACT programme workshop'Meteorite Impacts in Precambrian Shields'took place on May 24-28, 2000, in Lappajarvi, western Finland. A total of 84 scientists from 19 countries from Europe, North America, and Africa participated in the workshop. During the workshop, 43 oral, 31 poster, and several video presentations were made. An exhibition of impactite rocks from Finnish craters and two excursions were organised. The excursion to impact melt rock outcrops of the Lappajarvi structure took place during the workshop. The Karikkoselka and Saaksjarvi impact structures in south-central Finland were visited during the post-meeting excursion.

This book originates from the translation of an Italian textbook on the physics and chemistry of the atmosphere. The idea for this earlier effort came to me after I published, in 1989,'L'Atmosfera', a popular science book. A few years later I discovered, to my great surprise, that it was adopted as a textbook by a few univer­ sities or university courses. The publication of the book coincided with the intro­ duction in Italy of a university curriculum on Environmental Science and a partial reform of the physics curriculum that allows the teaching of courses like Atmos­ pheric Physics, Meteorology and Environmental Physics. This convinced me to adapt the popular book to a full textbook although the effort turned out to be a much harder job than I thought. The content of the present book is not simply the translation from the Italian be­ cause it has been largely rewritten. Still, it contains basically what I have been teaching in my courses of Atmospheric Physics and Geophysics in the last twenty years. In doing that I have looted many'sacred texts'. These may be divided into two categories: there are those like the book by J. M. Wall ace and P. V. Hobbs (see references) wh ich deal mostly with thermodynamics, radiation and dynamics at an elementary level and those like the book by 1. Holton, J. Pedlosky, A. Gill, K. Liu, etc. which are mostly professional texts and in some cases very specific.

The growing number of published works dedicated to global environmental change leads to the realization that protection of the natural environment has become an urgent problem. The question of working out principles of co­ evolution of man and nature is being posed with ever-increasing persistence. Scientists in many countries are attempting to find ways of formulating laws governing human processes acting on the environment. Numerous national and international programs regarding biosphere and climate studies contribute to the quest for means of resolving the conflict between human society and nature. However, attempts to find efficient methods of regulating human activity on a global scale encounter principal difficulties. The major difficulty is the lack of an adequate knowledge base pertaining to climatic and biospheric processes as wen as the largely incomplete state of the databases concerning global processes occurring in the atmosphere, in the ocean, and on land. Another difficulty is the inability of modern science to formulate the requirements which must be met by the global databases necessary for reliable evaluation of the state of the environ­ ment and fore casting its development for sufficiently long time intervals.

The present volume is an outcome of the scientific programme “Response of the Earth System to Impact Processes” (IMPACT) by the European Science Foundation (ESF). The ESF is an association of 67 national member organizations devoted to scientific research in 24 European countries. The IMPACT programme is aimed at understanding meteorite impact processes and their effects on the Earth System. Launched in 1998 for duration of 5 years, 15 ESF member organizations now participate in this programme, which will officially end in late 2003, although the momentum gained for European (and worldwide) impact research will be carried on in other programs and organizations. The programme deals with all aspects of meteorite impact research and operates through workshops, exchange programs, publications, and short courses. This particular book is the third in an informal series on “Impact Studies”, which is published by Springer and intended to go beyond the ESF IMPACT programme by providing a venue for high quality (and peer-reviewed) monographs and conference and workshop proceedings on general topics connected to impact cratering and related research. th The 6 ESF-Impact workshop “Impact makers in the stratigraphic record” was held in Granada (Spain) on May 2001, with about sixty scientists from Europe, Taiwan, and North America attending the workshop. During the workshop 30 oral, 32 poster, and 3 keynote contributions were presented.

Little more than ten years have passed since spaceprobe-borne instruments con­ clusively demonstrated the existence of the solar wind. These observations con­ firmed the basic validity of a theoretical model, first proposed by E. N. Parker, predicting a continuous, rapid expansion of the solar corona. The subsequent decade has seen a tremendous growth in both the breadth and sophistication of solar wind observations; the properties of the interplanetary plasma near the orbit of the earth are now known in great detail. The theory of the coronal ex­ pansion has also been highly refilled both in the sense of including additional physical processes, and of treating more realistic (time-dependent and non spheri­ cally-symmetric) coronal boundary conditions. The present volume is an attempt to synthesize the solar wind observations and coronal expansion models from this decade of rapid development. The ultimate goal is, of course, the interpretation of observed solar wind phenomena as the effects of basic physical processes occurring in the coronal and interplanetary plasma and as the natural manifestations of solar properties and structures. This approach implies an emphasis upon the'large-scale'features revealed by the observations. It requires extensive use of the concepts and methods of fluid mechanics.

This book is a collection of the most recent and significant research on algorithms for the analysis of polar sea-ice SAR data. All algorithms are implemented and tested. One chapter is from the Alaskan SAR Facility, the major NASA archive of polar SAR data and a source of many SAR analysis algorithms, including high-level results of such analyses. One chapter has been written jointly by the US and Canadian Ice Centers, which provide e.g., operational sea-ice products to the shipping and oil-drilling industries and to polar explorations. This book will be useful to all researchers in the polar sciences community.

This volume covers aspects of numerical modeling of the atmosphere and climate from the microscales of turbulence to the very large scales associated with climate and climatic change. Each of the three major spatio-temporal scales of the atmosphere, namely, the microscale, the mesoscale, and the macroscale is addressed through a hierarchy of models. Results of model simulations are illustrated throughout the text, with many of these examples based on the author's original research work. For each type of model discussed here, the theoretical background, including governing equation sets, simplifying assumptions, and advantages and limits of the models, is provided. The topic of coupled, or nested, modeling systems as a promising approach to air pllution embedded in regional atmospheric flows, as well as to the regional atmospheric response to global climate forcings, is also addressed. An attempt is made throughout the book to highlight the highly interdisciplinary nature of atmospheric modeling, particularly in those sections dealing with climatic change issues.

The present work is not exactly a'course', but rather is presented as a monograph in which the author has set forth what are, for the most part, his own results; this is particularly true of Chaps. 7-13. Many of the problems dealt with herein have, since the school year 1975-76, been the subject of a series of graduate lectures at the'Universire des Sciences et Techniques de Lille I'for students preparing for the'Diplome d'Etudes Ap­ profondies de Mecanique (option fluides)'. The writing of this book was thus strongly influenced by the author's own conception of meteorology as a fluid mechanics discipline which is in a privi­ leged area for the application of singular perturbation techniques. It goes without saying that the modeling of atmospheric flows is a vast and complex problem which is presently the focal point of many research projects. The enonnity of the topic explains why many important questions have not been taken up in this work, even among those which are closely related to the subject treated herein. Nonetheless, the author thought it worthwhile for the development of future research on the modeling of atmospheric flows (from the viewpoint of theoretical fluid mechanics) to bring forth a book specifying the problems which have already been resolved in this field and those which are, as yet, unsolved.

It is now possible to determine concentrations of trace constituents and pollutants in the lower atmosphere from space, a development which heralds a new era for tropospheric chemistry. The authors describe how to develop and validate methods for determining tropospheric trace constituents from satellite data, to encourage the use of these data by atmospheric chemists, and to explore the undoubted synergism which will develop between satellite and ground-based measurements, and will eventually give rise to a permanent observation system for the troposphere. The book comprises several comprehensive overviews, prepared by acknowledged experts in the field, together with a series of individual reports from investigators whose work represents the cutting edge of the subject. A variety of results, giving global distributions of several species and their modelling are reported. Most results stem from ESA satellite data, but there is also an account of the North American work in this field which has mainly concentrated on global distributions of ozone. It is fair to say that the field, as it develops, will revolutionize the way in which atmospheric chemistry is done. This timely book provides a good introduction for anyone with an interest in the future of the troposphere.

The Geo-Sciences Panel is a synonym for the Special Programme on Global Transport Mechanisms in the Geo-Sciences. This Programme is one of the special programs established by the NATO Science Committee to promote the study of a specific topic using the usual NATO structures, namely, Advanced Research Workshops, Advanced Study Institutes, Conferences, Collaborative Research Grants, Research-Studies and Lecture Visits. The aim of the Programme is to stimulate and facilitate international col­ laboration among scientists of the member countries in selected areas of global transport mechanisms in the Earth's atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and asthenosphere, and the interactions between these global transport processes. Created in 1982, the Geo-Sciences Panel followed the Air Sea­ Interactions Panel which was very successful in reviewing mechanisms at the air-sea-ice interface. Initially the Geo-Sciences Panel recognized the importance of magma chambers, ore deposits, geochemical cycles, seismic activity and hydrological studies. However, the Panel was rap­ idly convinced that the climate system is one of the most important sys­ tems in which to promote research on global transport mechanisms. Consequently, the Panel welcomed the organization of a course on Physically Based Modelling and Simulation of Climate and Climatic Change. This course was launched in Belgium in 1984 during both the Liege colloquium on Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere tlodels and the Louvain-Ia­ Neuve General Assembly of the European Geophysical Society. Rapidly scientists recognized that this course was timely and would be well­ received by the climate community, especially by junior researchers in this multi- and inter-disciplinary field.

PREFACE xv LIST OF LECTURERS xix LIST OF PARTICIPANTS xx]. VOLUME I PART I - DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICALLY-BASED MODELS OF THE ATMOSPHERE Section 1 - Introduction GATES, W. L. - Climate and the Climate System 3 SIMMONS, A. J. and L. BENGTSSON - Atmospheric General Circulation Models: Their Design and Use for Climate Studies 23 Section 2 - Numerical Methods for Large-Scale Dynamics ARAKAWA, A. - Finite-Difference Methods in Climate Modeling 79 BOURKE, W. - Spectral Methods in Global Climate and Weather Prediction Models 169 Section 3 - Parameterization of Subgrid-Scale Physical Processes FOUQUART, Y. - Radiative Transfer in Climate Models 223 LAVAL, K. - Land Surface Processes 285 SELLERS, P. J., Y. MINTZ, Y. C. SUD and A. DALCHER - A Brief Description of the Simple Biosphere Model (SiB) 307 SOMMERIA, G. - Parameterization of the Planetary Boundary Layer in Large-Scale Atmospheric Models 331 x TABLE OF CONTENTS TIEDTKE, M. - Parameterization of Cumulus Convection in Large-Scale Models 375 SUNDQVIST, H. - Parameterization of Condensation and Associated Clouds in Models for Weather Prediction and General Circulation Simulation 433 PART II - DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICALLY-BASED MODELS OF THE OCEAN AND SEA ICE HAN, Y. -J. - Modelling and Simulation of the General Circulation of the Ocean 465 HIBLER, W. D. - Modelling Sea Ice Thermodynamics and Dynamics in Climate Studies 509 PART III - METHODS OF COUPLING ATMOSPHERE, OCEAN AND ICE MODELS BRYAN, K.

Earth's Rotation from Eons to Days reviews long-term changes, methods of measurement, and the major influences on rotation parameters. In order to understand secular changes, the momentary behavior of ocean tides must be analyzed and appropriately modelled. Researchers and students in astronomy and all fields of geosciences will find a wealth of information related to the interaction of geophysical phenomena and the rotation of the planet Earth.

Forecasting the weather for the long and medium range is a difficult and scientifically challenging problem. Since the first operational weather prediction by numerical methods was carried out (on the BESK computer in Stockholm, Sweden, 1954). there has been an ever accelerating development in computer technology. Hand in hand has followed a tremendous increase in the complexity of the atmospheric models used for weather prediction. The ability of these models to predict future states of the atmosphere has also increased rapidly, both due to model development and due to more accurate and plentiful observations of the atmosphere to define the initial. state for model integrations. It may however be argued on theoretical grounds that even if we have an almost perfect model with almost perfect initial data, we will never be able to make an accurate weather prediction more than a few weeks ahead. This is due to the inherent instability of the atmosphere and work in this field was pioneered by E. Lorenz. It is generally referred to as atmospheric predict­ ability and in the opening chapter of this book Professor Lorenz gives us an overview of the problem of atmospheric predictability. The contributions to this book were originally presented at the 1981 ECMWF Seminar (ECMWF - European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts) which was held at ECMWF in Reading, England, in September 1981.

This book reviews the current state of knowledge of the atmospheres of the giant gaseous planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. The current theories of their formation are reviewed and their recently observed temperature, composition and cloud structures are contrasted and compared with simple thermodynamic, radiative transfer and dynamical models. The instruments and techniques that have been used to remotely measure their atmospheric properties are also reviewed, and the likely development of outer planet observations over the next two decades is outlined.This second edition has been extensively updated following the Cassini mission results for Jupiter/Saturn and the newest ground-based measurements for Uranus/Neptune as well as on the latest development in the theories on planet formation.

In the last three years, there have been three large tsunamis in the Indian Ocean, most notably the notorious one which struck on 26 December 2004 and killed more than 238,000 people. It was generated by one of the largest recorded earthquakes in the last 100 years. Such events occur about four times per century, mainly in the Pacific Ocean. Few scientists were aware that the Indian Ocean was vulnerable: only Thailand had been warned of the potential for such an event. However, tsunami are also insidious local hazards. Since 1990, at least eleven events have impacted on the world's coastlines, causing devastation and loss of life. Tsunami are underrated as major hazards, mainly due to the misconceptions that they occur infrequently compared to other natural disasters and happen along some distant shoreline, most likely in a developing country. Evidence for past great tsunami, or'mega-tsunami'has also recently been discovered along apparently aseismic and protected coastlines, such as those of Australia and Western Europe. These mega-tsunami are caused by either huge submarine landslides or the impact of meteorites and comets with the ocean. With a large proportion of the world's population living on the coastline, the threat from tsunami cannot be ignored.

Lightning represents a natural phenomenon of substantial interest. Due to its complex nature, research continues in many countries and reveals amazing results. Lightning is actively observed because of its relevance to Earth climate and air composition in addition to the classical aspects of related human fatalities and damage to forests, buildings, power lines, aircraft, structures and electronic devices. In this volume, the most important contemporary questions on lightning are addressed and analyzed under many experimental and theoretical aspects. Lightning detection techniques using ground-based and space-borne methods are described, along with network engineering and statistical analysis. Contributions detail research on atmospheric electricity, cloud physics, lightning physics, modeling of electrical storms and middle atmospheric events. Special phenomena such as triggered lightning and sprite observations are examined. Lightning-induced nitrogen oxides and their effects on atmospheric chemistry and climate are discussed. Each topic is presented by international experts in the field. Topics include: • air chemistry • convective storms • infrasound from lightning • lightning and climate change • lightning and precipitation • lightning and radiation • lightning and supercells • lightning and thunderstorms • lightning detection • lightning from space • lighting protection • lightning return strokes • observations and interpretations • spatial distribution and frequency • triggered lightning • weather extremes

Solar radiation data is important for a wide range of applications, e.g. in engineering, agriculture, health sector, and in many fields of the natural sciences. A few examples showing the diversity of applications may include: architecture and building design e.g. air conditioning and cooling systems; solar heating system design and use; solar power generation; weather and climate prediction models; evaporation and irrigation; calculation of water requirements for crops; monitoring plant growth and disease control; skin cancer research.Solar radiation data must be provided in a variety of forms to suit these applications. The radiation reaching the upper atmosphere of the Earth is a quantity rather constant in time. But the radiation reaching some point on Earth surface is random in nature. The main cause is the fact that various gases within the atmosphere absorb solar radiation at different wavelengths, and clouds and dust also affect it. There are two ways to obtaining solar radiation data at ground level: by measurement and by modelling. The book will facilitate the calculation of solar radiation required by engineers, designers and scientists and, as a result, will increase the access to needed solar radiation data.

In many parts of the world, weather and climate are one of the biggest production risks and uncertainty factors impacting on agricultural systems performance and management. Both structural and non-structural measures can be used to reduce the impacts of the variability (including extremes) of climate resources on crop production. While the structural measures include strategies such as irrigation, water harvesting, windbreaks etc., the non-structural measures include use of seasonal to interannual climate forecasts, improved application of medium-range weather forecasts and crop insurance. This book based on an International Workshop held in New Delhi, India should be of interest to all organizations and agencies interested in improved risk management in agriculture.

Only satellite-based remote-sensing instruments generate the wealth of global data on the concentrations of atmospheric constituents that are necessary for long-term monitoring of the atmosphere. This set of courses and lectures sponsored by ICTP in Trieste focuses on remote sensing for atmospheric applications and inverse methods to assess atmospheric components, gases, aerosols and clouds. It addresses primarily graduate students and young researchers in the atmospheric sciences but will be useful for all those wishing to study various techniques for exploring the atmosphere by remote sensing. Contributions span topics such as on IGOS (Integrated Global Observing Strategy), electromagnetic scattering by non-spherical particles, forward-modelling requirements and the information content problem, Earth radiation, and aerosol monitoring by LIDAR.

As the first comprehensive and authoritative review of intra-seasonal variability (ISV), this multi-author work balances coverage of observation, theory and modeling and provides a single source of reference for all those interested in this important, multi-faceted natural phenomenon and its relation to major short-term climatic variations. Commencing with an overview of ISV and observations from an historical perspective, the book offers successive chapters that deal with the role of ISV in monsoon variability on the monsoon regions of South Asia, East Asia and South America, in North America, and in the oceans. The coupling between ocean and atmosphere is considered, together with the function of angular momentum and Earth rotation. Later chapters deal with modeling ISV in the atmosphere and oceans, and the connection between the Madden and Julian Oscillations, and El Nino/Southern Oscillation with short-term climate are considered.

The editors present a state-of-the-art overview on the Physics of Space Weather and its effects on technological and biological systems on the ground and in space. It opens with a general introduction on the subject, followed by a historical review on the major developments in the field of solar terrestrial relationships leading to its development into the up-to-date field of space weather. Specific emphasis is placed on the technological effects that have impacted society in the past century at times of major solar activity. Chapter 2 summarizes key milestones, starting from the base of solar observations with classic telescopes up to recent space observations and new mission developments with EUV and X-ray telescopes (e.g., STEREO), yielding an unprecedented view of the sun-earth system. Chapter 3 provides a scientific summary of the present understanding of the physics of the sun-earth system based on the latest results from spacecraft designed to observe the Sun, the interplanetary medium and geospace. Chapter 4 describes how the plasma and magnetic field structure of the earth's magnetosphere is impacted by the variation of the solar and interplanetary conditions, providing the necessary science and technology background for missions in low and near earth's orbit. Chapter 5 elaborates the physics of the layer of the earth's upper atmosphere that is the cause of disruptions in radio-wave communications and GPS (Global Positioning System) errors, which is of crucial importance for projects like Galileo. In Chapters 6-10, the impacts of technology used up to now in space, on earth and on life are reviewed.

This volume collects a number of theoretical and experimental lectures on various aspects of transport and mixing of active and passive particles in geophysical flows. Transports in fluids can be approached from two complementary perspectives: in the Eulerian view of mixing, the focus is on the concentration field - advection stetches and folds the concentration field and sharpens the gradients, while diffusion smoothes the field. In the Langrangian view, fluid parcels are followed around as they move with the flow, experiencing chaotic or stochastic motion. Both pictures are considered in the present lectures, with passive particles carried freely by the flow and reactive particles, where chemically or biologically induced reactions change the character of the particles.

What is “rotating hydraulics” and why would anyone wish to read a book on the subject? Over the past three decades, the term has come to describe the physics of overflows and other choked flows of the ocean and atmosphere that are broad enough to be influenced by Earth's rotation. The currents and winds in question typically have high speeds, subcritical-to-supercritical transitions, shocks, and other objects familiar to open-channel or aeronautical engineers. Bores, int- sions, steepening waveforms and separation phenomena are considered part of the subject because they tend to arise within these flows. Mixing with neighboring fluid often occurs as the result of wave breaking or of instabilities associated with the high velocities. Interest in the field is often excited by the dramatic and strongly nonlinear character of the features in question and by the mixing and its downstream consequences. The subject is also important for the study of the Earth's climate because of the special opportunities for observation and long term monitoring made possible as a result of the choking effect. This book is concerned primarily with the theory of rotating hydraulics. However, the Introduction contains an overview of the observations that have motivated much of the theoretical development, and more detailed case studies appear later in the book. Though both the atmosphere and the ocean are covered, the latter is the source of the most numerous examples.