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This paper describes the difficulties that two prospective teachers experienced in student teaching assignments in two city schools; both judged outstanding by the faculty from where they were about to graduate. It examines the ways in which these experiences eroded the student teachers' convictions that they could teach all children in ways that emphasized student construction of meaning. Examination of their journals and reflective writing showed how the many demands of classroom teaching and the pressures generated by a traditional staff-room culture together created an environment in which two young women who had believed themselves to be fully committed to progressive practices came to see these reform ideas as visionary and impractical. Findings of the analysis suggest that even the most committed novices are vulnerable to staff-room culture and that a professional community outside of the school that raises questions about the practices the novices are trying to implement can help them to connect the ideas they valued as students with the reality of the real-world classroom. (NAV)

This paper addresses education reform efforts, specifically the need to improve schooling by improving the status, power, and working conditions of teachers through professional development programs. Two issues which continue to undermine the authenticity and social value of efforts to promote teacher development are addressed: (1) underneath the rhetoric of many current efforts to empower teachers to take control of their own professional development is a reality in which teachers remain extremely limited in the scope of their power to influence the conditions of their work; and (2) even when efforts to promote teacher development and reflective teaching are not illusory, teacher development often becomes an end in itself unconnected to broader questions about education in a democratic society. Teacher development needs to be genuine, connected to the promotion of equity and social justice, a means toward the education of everyone's children, and supportive of teachers' efforts to reflect on and change the practices and social conditions which undermine and distort the educational potential and moral basis of schooling in democratic societies. Forty-two references are included. (LL)

This Spanish-language report offers a framework for the analysis and evaluation of intervention on children's behalf against which to analyze actions upon their environment. The first section looks at the complex issue of defining suitable child development outcomes for intervention programs, noting that because the concept of childhood varies across cultures and classes, definitions of developmental outcomes need to take into account cultural and class variables. The second section examines two examples of environmental conditions that threaten children's development, poverty and prejudice, and explains how both situations involve complex systems of adverse circumstances that tend to be chronic and that interact in a multiplicative fashion with respect to negative effects on children's development. The third section summarizes briefly the characteristics of a general model for planning and analyzing the results of interventions on children's behalf, recommending that interventions: (1) be child-centered; (2) be culturally sensitive; (3) be multi-faceted to combat multiple affiliations; (4) support families, improve health care and school, and enhance neighborhood conditions; and (5) demolish societal barriers to child development. An afterword examines the implications of the findings for future program development. Contains 90 references. (AP)

Five years of state test results for Pennsylvania are examined, focusing on differences among elementary schools in which a majority of students do not master basic learning skills. Data are provided for 1,505 elementary schools in about 500 districts. The largest learning problems occur in about 10% of the schools; these schools have been consistently low for the past 5 years. More specifically, for about 150 of the schools, over half of the students score below minimum competence every year. The data reveal a stable set of relationships among schools and between school achievement and other factors. Socioeconomic differences of families are the major predictors of achievement differences among schools. Currently, student/teacher ratios are largely unrelated to students' needs or achievement growth. Research to establish the student achievement benefits of higher "per student spending" is difficult, since most spending variation among the 500 school districts in Pennsylvania is due to differences in teacher salaries or student/teacher ratios. Increasing teacher salaries could increase the quality of new teachers hired in the 1990's if valid teacher quality indicators are available and used by districts. Smaller classes could help if instruction is designed to take advantage of smaller class sizes and if use of smaller classes is managed. Four tables and two figures are included. Eight reports in the Pennsylvania Educational Policy Studies series are listed. (RLC)

Focusing on common misconceptions about children who have trouble learning to read, two papers discuss new ways to think about and teach these students. "Revaluing Readers and Reading," by Kenneth S. Goodman, argues that troubled readers should not be thought of as sufferers from an illness, but as strong, healthy individuals fully capable of learning how to read. To help prepare educators to build on these strengths, Goodman discusses some basic facts about how reading, as a unitary psycholinguistic process, works and develops. Geoffrey Williams and David Jacks' paper, "The Role of Story: Learning to Read in a Special Education Class," explores (1) the assumption that children who have trouble learning to read are deficient; (2) whether a change in approach that emphasizes the social uses of written language might, over an extended period of time, enable them to read more confidently; and (3) the practical management of collaborative language research in a special education setting. To accomplish these purposes, the article details the progress made in 1 year by 13 elementary children in a special education class. The class emphasized extending the functional range of written stories by employing what children already knew about the oral use of narrative. (JD)

This paper touches on some of the major issues relating to information and communication technology (ICT) and literacy which until now have been treated as separate subjects. The paper argues for a convergence of the two and recommends that government agencies coordinate their visions instead of sending contradictory messages to teachers and students. Its focus is the first three key stages of the literacy strategy, touching ages 5-14, but the concerns it raises are familiar to anyone working in adult basic skills as well and are relevant beyond the United Kingdom. (Includes a glossary of acronyms and terms. Contains 15 references.) (NKA)

Research concerning the applied educational potential of Richard Atkinson's mnemonic "keyword method" is reported in this paper. Included are possibilities for stretching the limits of the keyword method by combining it with other mnemonic and prose-learning strategies. The first half of the paper provides an overview of mnemonics--the systems' historical development into the keyword method--and discusses various mnemonic applications. The second half of the paper discusses the following reasons for introducing mnemonic techniques into educational curricula: (1) students remember more information in comparison to those who do not use mnemonic techniques, (2) mnemonic effects are potent and durable, (3) the techniques are versatile and can work in a classroom context, (4) use of mnemonic techniques will not impede the acquisition of other valued skills and may help to foster certain valued skills, (5) mnemonics are adaptable to student differences, (6) most children enjoy using mnemonics, and (7) many teachers believe in the value of mnemonics. Four pages of references conclude the document. (HOD)

This report reviews selected issues and progress to date in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) in improving primary education quality and provides suggestions and recommendations for the future. The report examines: (1) learning, school completion, and grade repetition in LAC; (2) the relationships between primary school inputs and outputs in LAC; (3) early childhood development; (4) textbooks and teaching materials; (5) teachers and their classroom behavior; (6) the financing of primary education; and (7) the use of information for decision making in primary education. The report notes that 29 percent of all children in LAC primary schools are repeating their grade each year, and that LAC spends $2.5 billion each year to teach some 20 million repeaters. Based on international studies of academic achievement, LAC countries do significantly worse than the developed world, and worse than many developing countries in Asia. The report emphasizes the need to focus on investments in three key areas to improve primary education quality. These are the provision of early childhood programs to the poorest and most vulnerable elements of society, the modification of teachers' classroom behavior to accommodate instructional innovation, and the provision of adequate quality and quantity of textbooks and educational materials to students. Contains 148 references. (MDM)

In this position statement, the National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education asserts that recess is an essential component of education and that preschool and elementary school children must have the opportunity to participate in regular periods of active, free play with peers. The statement summarizes research on the benefits of recess and play on social, emotional, physical, and cognitive development; delineates current concerns about the elimination of recess by many schools; and offers recommendations about recess and the young child. Recommendations include the following: (1) support policies that require recess time to be part of the preschool and elementary school curriculum; and (2) support research and professional development that facilitate every educator's skills in observation and assessment of the developmental growth of children through the play process. Appended to the statement are a position paper from the National Association for Sport and Physical Education on recess in elementary schools, and a statement on the value of school recess and outdoor play from the National Association for the Education of Young Children. (Contains 40 references.) (EV)

The processes of learning about and exploring different vocations should begin in elementary school. Elementary school teachers and administrators planning career education must be careful to develop sequential objectives that are achievable, challenging, and tailored to students' interests. Elementary-level career education may emphasize separate units of study or be integrated into ongoing units of study. Objectives of elementary-level career education can include helping students achieve the following goals: become responsible, caring individuals; develop habits of cleanliness; develop good human relations skills; learn to balance personal and societal needs; and learn to think effectively and make decisions. Because they may well become vital in students' career education, the language arts, mathematics, social studies, science, health, and music and art must all be integrated with career education. Elementary-age students also need ample opportunities to experience vital careers in separate and/or integrated units of study, including through the following activities: (1) listening to community members discuss their careers; (2) developing scrapbooks illustrating different careers in the societal arena; (3) participating in role-playing activities; (4) developing collages and murals showing salient careers; (5) researching careers of interest at their individual development level; and (6) taking excursions to observe significant careers firsthand. (MN)

Recent calls for educational reform focus on the need for curricula emphasizing conceptual learning that is integrated across traditional subject areas. In response to this, the major national subject-matter organizations (including the National Council of Teachers of English) met to discuss and develop guidelines for integrating the curriculum from Pre-K-Grade 4, and the result is this position statement. The position statement outlines eight principles that should guide the implementation of an integrated curriculum. It states that an interdisciplinary education which draws from the knowledge and processes of multiple disciplines should encourage students to become active learners equipped with the analytical, interpretive, and evaluative skills needed to solve real-life problems. (NKA)

This document presents 17 philosophical statements regarding school-age care programs, staff, and challenges. The essence of school-age care is to understand childhood and to facilitate positive development. Because these programs provide a place where children have significant contact with adults within a multi-age peer group, they can teach peaceful living skills and facilitate positive youth development. Careful research must identify factors in quality school-age care programs. Although the field of school-age care has had a good history so far, it is now at a crossroads. To increase professionalism, college training, accreditation of sites, and licensing of providers are needed. Staff need competencies in social interaction and development; family dynamics; cultural, ethnic, and gender sensitivity; understanding play, child leadership; and handling special needs children. Staff must be in a partnership with the children in which children plan events and adults guide the process. Staff can be trained on a variety of levels; it is important to maintain the current diversity of backgrounds while identifying educational requirements. Staff need to consider the socialization opportunities within discrete interactions. The facilitation of positive development in children should guide program development and adult-child interactions. Challenges to school-age care programs include identifying the role and purpose of the field, developing a base of research, theory, and knowledge, stemming the high staff turnover rate, and beginning the education cycle. Finally, school-age care providers should be held to the principle of "in loco parentis," meaning "in place of the parents." (KDFB)

This document presents the action plan of the Child Care Action Campaign (CCAC) for improving the quantity and quality of child care services. The document also provides a policy statement on linking education and child care efforts. The action plan describes CCAC's vision of a streamlined system providing child care to infants and toddlers, preschool children, and school-aged children, and calls on the business community to provide funding and organizational assistance. It is recommended that individuals interested in child care must: (1) make quality care affordable; (2) ensure that centers are safe and healthful, and provide family-centered experiences; (3) help families make informed choices about care programs; (4) extend the school day to reflect changing family realities; (5) designate or create community agencies to coordinate child care; (6) ensure collaboration between schools and care providers; (7) encourage the development of a system of training; (8) develop leave and flexible work policies for parents; and (9) encourage investment in child care and school-based facilities. The policy statement describes the role of child care in achieving the nation's school readiness goal, fostering child development, helping parents balance work and family responsibilities, and encouraging welfare reform. The policy statement also discusses key elements of an effective child care system, including universal access, quality, variety. community and parent involvement, continuous service from birth to school years, and training for providers. Information on CCAC's history and current projects is appended. (BCY)

The edited transcript of an informal panel discussion about discourse conducted by the Discourse Linguistics Special Interest Group of the American Educational Research Association is presented in this pamphlet. The transcript also includes comments by the chairperson and by audience members. Among the topics covered in the discussion are the distinction between content and packaging, pronominalization, child language, cross-cultural conversational skills, and kinesiology. (FL)

Immigrant education and Language Shelter programs for Finnish speakers living in Sweden are discussed in answer to Cora Brent-Palmer's criticism that a middle class bias exists in the Swedish educational system. She claims that the system operates against the academic opportunities and employment success of Finnish immigrants. However, it is argued that Language Shelter programs have as their goals assimilation of the second language speakers and the elimination of semilingualism. In these programs, instruction is mainly in Finnish with Swedish as a Second Language (SSE) from grade 3 on. Thus, instruction in Finnish to Finish speakers promotes linguistic competence in the first language (L1) while SSE leads to proficiency in Swedish. A large-scale longitudinal study proves: (1) that Finnish immigrant children at the end of grade 6 after a Language Shelter program do just as well as Finnish children in Finland on all language tests; (2) that they do just as well as Swedish children in tests of listening and reading comprehension and oral production in Swedish; and (3) that they write in Swedish almost at grade level, with some minor difficulties in spelling and punctuation. Their school achievement in academic subjects is also at grade level. (PMJ)

Parallels between three main approaches to development education and peace education are pointed out in this discussion. Specifically examined are informational, community action, and "qualitative" approaches to development education and correspondences in the growth of peace education. The document also describes organizational forms of development education and peace education as well as activities undertaken within institutions of formal education at primary, secondary, and higher education levels. Topics discussed include the role of professional associations, both national and international, and the separation of issues in the United Nations system. It is concluded that, whereas both educational concerns have common goals, hopes, and methods, development and peace education are separate activities competing for time, attention, and resources. Their integration is viewed as desirable and possible. (RH)

This discussion of the emotional development of young children is structured upon Erik Erikson's schemata of psycho-social development. Stage 1, which involves trust versus mistrust, includes references to Erikson's theory and the work of Melanie Klein, Berry Brazelton, Stella Chess and Alexander Thomas, John Bowlby, Anthony Stevens, and D. W. Winnicott. Stage 2, which covers autonomy versus shame and doubt, emphasizes the intensity of toddlers' feelings. There is a brief discussion of the emotional consequences of toilet training that is too early and too rigid on the acquisition of a self rooted in self-trust. Stage 3, which deals with initiative versus guilt, discusses antecedents of these feelings, children's invention of imaginary companions, and children's experiences of anxiety, fears, and phobias during the toddler and preschool years. Stage 4, which focuses on the development of industry versus inferiority during the primary school years, stresses the importance of parental love in helping children meet the challenges of school life and in dealing with the strange methods children devise to attract attention. It is concluded that each person adapts and adjusts to his or her environment in accordance with innate abilities, personal style, and the help of parents, siblings, teachers, and friends. (RH)

This paper argues for the development of a new type of combined bilingual and bicultural/multicultural program or curriculum based on recent research. Some issues concerning bilingual education are addressed, followed by a short review of the findings of ethnographers concerning cultural differences in the classroom. The applicability of the Whorf hypothesis to the field of language education is considered. Finally, observations done at Potter Thomas elementary school are incorporated to illustrate the need for and potential of the type of program proposed. (Author)

This brief paper is a response to a reanalysis (Krueger & Zhu, 2003) of a report (Mayer, Peterson, Myers, Tuttle, & Howell, 2002). The response is offered by two of the authors (Myers & Mayer) of the original report. The original report presented an evaluation of the impact of vouchers on students' reading and mathematics achievement and on parents' satisfaction with their schools. The evaluation looked at a program in New York City begun in 1997 in which 1,300 scholarships (vouchers) worth up to $1,400 each were granted, through a lottery, to public-school students in grades K-4 to attend private schools. This paper comments on two issues raised in the reanalysis: (1) the sensitivity of the findings to different definitions of African American; and (2) the use of the kindergarten cohort and other students with missing baseline test data when estimating the impact of a voucher offer on students' achievement. This paper includes three tables that show the reading, mathematics, and composition test scores from the original report; lengthy footnotes; and nine references. (WFA)

Although many pressures have been brought to bear in the social studies curriculum over the past 70 years, the leaders of the country's society have maintained the middle ground. They have ensured that educators remain somewhat conservative in their approach to the social sciences, ensuring that the history of the culture be continually passed on to future generations. Currently, events in small developing countries are having a domino effect which include the developed countries. This paper discusses the role of the social studies today, stating that in some mythical place, in some mythical town in the United States, there lies a Chest of Treasures, which contains all the recorded history of the American colonies and states and their cultures through the present day. The paper asks how a child learns which of the words in the chest truly belong to him/her and will light the torch of freedom. It notes that teachers may use their positions in classrooms to severely slant and damage impressionable first through fifth graders. It contends that it is time to move on from this mythical place and this mythical Chest of Treasures to present-day United States. The paper discusses the Patriot Act of 2001, considering it a suspension of the Bill of Rights. It concludes by discussing William Bennett's "The Educated Child: A Parents Guide from Preschool through Eighth Grade," stating that it provides many useful and solid suggestions for the teaching of history, geography, and economics. (BT)

This paper asserts that a modern elementary classroom, in which broadly based international perspectives are fostered and global understanding realized, is one in which the teacher, as a co-learner in the experience, is prepared to negotiate and exchange power with students. The paper explores how this shift in teaching philosophy toward active learning may be a requisite next stage in the evolution of the teaching of social studies. Brief descriptions of active learning in classrooms in Italy and England conclude the paper. (EV)

This paper discusses the difficulty students often face when many new words are simultaneously introduced in a text. It suggests teachers may address this difficulty in a number of ways, including the following: writing to a publisher to suggest improvements; providing lists of new words to students before reading selections; and focusing on context clues. In addition, a teacher should also ensure that the students work to sound out new words, focusing on phonics. The paper advises that textbooks should be chosen based on how words are introduced; it suggests that new words should be introduced gradually instead of simultaneously, and sentences should first be simple and eventually become more complicated as a textbook progresses. (PM)

This paper outlines various approaches to teaching reading. The first approach considered focuses on a teacher strictly following a textbook. The paper notes that textbooks which employ programmed reading help students progress at a slow but steady rate. It then discusses the hierarchical method of state mandated objectives and testing. Features of the state mandated approach are highlighted, such as the following: state tests are written by those removed from the classroom; the tests tend to measure lower levels of cognition such as recall and comprehension rather than critical and creative thinking; and they are only meaningful if teachers construct instruction based on the tests. The final method of teaching reading considered in the paper is an open ended approach, where teachers pick and choose from textbooks and allow the students some choices. Individualized reading and sustained silent reading are examples of this open ended approach. (PM)

This paper discusses the importance of reading aloud to students. It emphasizes the teacher's need to plan carefully when to read and what books to read. The paper suggests the following ideas should guide a teacher's choice of reading material: whether the story will capture students' attention; whether the story will increase students' vocabulary; and whether the choices are diverse. The paper emphasizes that the teacher must avoid reading too quickly while reading aloud to students. The connection between reading aloud and sustained silent reading (SSR), as well as individualized reading, is outlined in the paper. In addition, it discusses that teachers may read aloud important information from bulletin boards. The paper closes by discussing teacher and parent training for reading aloud. (PM)

This paper discusses the importance of scaffolding and other techniques in teaching reading. It details numerous ways to employ scaffolding, such as the following: a teacher may read aloud new passages while students follow along; a teacher may print new words on the chalkboard before students read a passage which uses the words; and teachers may suggest students use the public library. The paper emphasizes that scaffolding may also be accomplished through Learning Styles Theory, which focuses on: classroom situations, such as temperature and seating; emotional elements such as conformity; sociological factors; scientific intelligences; and artistic intelligences. The article also discusses constructivism in reading instruction--in constructivism, the student is heavily involved in making curricular decisions. (PM)

This paper explores the philosophical considerations involved in literacy. It explains that one concept that is emphasized in discussions of literacy is "the basics," which are defined as essential skills, such as the association of phonemes with graphemes. This paper notes that "the basics" movement presently stresses the importance of statewide objectives and state mandated testing. Another concept that is considered is that of a changing reading curriculum, in which teaching methods are adjusted over time. A final philosophical consideration addressed in the paper is idealism, which has the following effects on teaching instruction: intellectual objectives come first in teaching; assessment procedures are used to appraise vital subject matter attained by students; survey teaching is frowned upon; education is seen as preparation for adult responsibilities; and student literature should emphasize what is good, true and beautiful. (PM)

This paper outlines ways other than drills that students can practice reading methods. Flash cards, software programs, essay projects, and synonym hunts are examples of enjoyable ways for students to practice. In a more formal method of introducing words, a teacher writes words on the board and discusses them before assigning a story with the new words. Students then write a poem, story, or crossword puzzle with the new words as a follow-up activity. The paper also suggests the following as acceptable classroom conditions for learning: respect between students; help from teachers when needed; a reasonable classroom noise level; feedback from teachers; and application of new words. Likewise, the paper suggests the following principles should be emphasized in teaching reading: students should be attentive to new words; reading needs to be conveyed as enjoyable; students should receive help from parents; students should feel comfortable in their learning environment; and students, especially in primary grades, need to be in small classes. It also lists helpful individualized reading approaches such as Silent Reading, Book Buddies, library time, and book reports. (PM)

Currently, many states are providing inservice education for teachers so that higher student test scores result. State mandated objectives are available to teachers for study and used as benchmarks for teaching. The local reading curriculum then needs to be aligned with these objectives of instruction. The major objective of inservice education is for teachers to use and implement the state mandated objectives of reading instruction. This paper discusses types of inservice education that will help teachers provide learning opportunities in reading for students and their relation to state mandated objectives. The paper points out that an increasing number of basal reading textbook companies are providing workshops which are designed to assist teachers in using the basal series more effectively, and, in particular, to help students achieve more optimally and to become independent readers. It notes that publishers are expanding their online teacher support, tests aligned to textbook content, and other supplementary products. The paper suggests using an experience chart to provide a firm basis for inservice teacher education, but the experience chart method of reading instruction should be modeled by a teacher in a workshop involving a set of young students. It states that workshop participants must view and analyze each step of the model as it is being taught to notice what needs diagnosis and remediation. And it concludes that whichever plan of reading instruction is being followed, inservice education might well fill voids and strengthen the curriculum. (NKA)

This paper emphasizes the connections between listening and the language arts. It lists advantages of students who are good listeners, such as students can learn more when listening well, and students learn to be polite by listening. In addition, the paper lists the following conditions which improve student listening: teaching and learning situations which emphasize individual learning styles; a school environment which stresses a caring set of interactions between learners and teachers; and parental involvement with mutually accepted listening goals. It outlines how students can be taught to be good listeners, and suggests that students who are good listeners should be observed and imitated. Additional suggestions include the following: special class sessions devoted to guiding students to become better listeners; keep the learning environment free of unnecessary noises; and teachers modeling examples of good listeners. The paper provides a list of possible evaluations of students' listening improvements. Examples of such evaluations are: self-evaluation by students; observing students in various situations, such as in class discussions and lunchroom and recess conversations; and student portfolios. (Contains 12 references.) (PM)

The school library is very important in developing a quality reading program. The library books and other reading materials need to be varied and on various levels of reading complexity so that students can read meaningfully without facing failure in word recognition and comprehension of ideas. This paper discusses school libraries and their various functions. The paper explains that sustained silent reading and individualized reading programs can be held in the school library and that technology has contributions to make as a library resource in a plethora of ways. It finds that schools are increasingly using technology to improve student reading and study habits. The paper suggests that the local school conduct research to ascertain whether the library is being used by students to obtain necessary information in answer to problems and questions in reading. It advocates rating the library in a questionnaire for students and teachers and then evaluating the results to study the library's strengths and weaknesses; student interviews may also be conducted to ascertain the kinds of library services desired to improve reading habits. The paper also discusses conducting workshops for improving library services, holding faculty meetings to establish objectives for library use, encouraging students to take library books home for reading, developing a community of readers which includes library supporters, and creating activities this community of readers may engage in. (NKA)

The principal of the school needs to be highly knowledgeable of how reading should be taught. He/she must know the different psychologies and philosophies of reading instruction. Word recognition techniques and diverse comprehension skills should also be in the repertoire of the school principal. The principal must work in the direction of helping teachers teach so that students achieve at a higher rate in reading, the first of the 3Rs. And school administrators are being held accountable for student test results. This paper first discusses the different psychologies of reading instruction and of teaching in general. The paper then considers the principal's knowledge of word recognition skills and of reading comprehension skills. It states that a positive learning environment is necessary in which students can develop a feeling of belonging and are recognized for achievements in reading. (Contains 12 references.) (NKA)

Several diverse philosophical schools of thought might well provide guidance for the teaching of reading. But which philosophies of education should be studied in depth and applied in teaching students, if perceived as providing for optimal learner progress? This paper first addresses the advantages and disadvantages of statewide testing and state mandated standards. The paper then discusses the following: realism as a philosophy in teaching reading; idealism/perennialism as a philosophy of reading instruction; the philosophy of individualized reading; and eclectic philosophy of reading instruction. It concludes that the reading teacher needs to: keep abreast and updated in matters pertaining to philosophy, trends, and issues in education; provide for the individual needs, interests, and purposes of the student in reading; and diagnose and remedy deficiencies in student reading. (Contains 10 references.) (NKA)

This paper asks whether the current form of assessment is appropriate in measuring the growth of American students in the subject of reading. First, the paper examines the argument for standardized testing of skills as an appropriate form of assessment. It then points out that the people in support of this form of testing argue that these tests are a non-biased tool for assessing all students, while opponents think that students in low income or poverty-stricken areas are at a disadvantage when taking these tests. The paper discusses opinions on both sides of the argument. It concludes that a more balanced approach to assessment could be as successful as a balanced approach to instruction, and that taking elements of both forms of assessment and using them for positive change would get educators out of their educational rut. (NKA)

Noting that language arts and reading across the curriculum are in vogue, this paper asserts that reading is an important and distinct part of the language arts and overall school curriculum. It discusses actions and methods involved in the teaching of reading itself, including: (1) oral reading to and by students; (2) availability of a variety of book selections; (3) use of basal readers; (4) development of skill techniques for word recognition, such as phonics, syllabication, and context and picture clues; (5) determination of reading levels; (6) awareness of problems in reading, signaled by reading error types; and (7) fostering of reading for diverse purposes. The paper concludes that quality reading involves the ability to comprehend and understand that which has been read, and that when pupils read, the approach used should stress holism as much as possible. (EF)

This paper discusses and recommends diagnosis and remediation procedures in teaching pupils in the area of reading. The first section of the paper addresses diagnostic emphasis in reading and discusses individualized reading, experience charts, and 5 recommendations for teaching phonics. The next section discusses basal readers, argues that good reading teachers need to use the basal reader in a satisfying way whereby all pupils achieve as optimally as possible and lists 10 achievement goals for teachers using basal readers. The paper then briefly describes traditional linguistic approaches in teaching reading as advocated by Leonard Bloomfield and Charles Fries. It also discusses the initial teaching alphabet and the use of rebus in basal reading series, where illustrations take the place of complex words that pupils usually could not identify. The paper concludes that diagnosis and remediation in reading are needed for pupils to make continuous and sequential progress. (RS)

A major task involved in teaching students is to group wisely for instruction. This paper discusses the use of grouping in the following contexts: the self contained classroom; departmentalism and the student; homogeneous versus heterogeneous grouping controversy; learning centers; the dual progress plan; team teaching and grouping students for instruction; interage or multiage grouping; and the mainstreaming of students. The paper suggests that the plan or plans of grouping students needs to be based on a sound philosophy of education as well as a recommended foundation of the psychology of instruction. It contends that teachers and principals need to have an open mind in terms of how learners should be grouped so that each student can attain as much as possible in the school curriculum. The paper makes the following recommendations: (1) the plan of grouping must benefit the individual child in ongoing lessons and units of instruction; (2) an integrated curriculum whereby each subject matter area is related within the total curriculum should be implemented in grouping for instruction; (3) parents should be involved and informed about proposals for grouping learners; (4) inservice education for teachers may well be necessary when implementing a new plan in grouping students for instruction; and (5) the school curriculum and the approach to grouping learners for instruction need to be congruent and not separate in philosophical and psychological beliefs. (NKA)

This paper begins with an overview of necessary word recognition skills and the debate between use of phonics versus whole language. The paper gives a useful 5-step strategy for decoding unfamiliar words: (1) use context clues; (2) try the sound of the initial consonant, vowel, or blend in addition to context clues; (3) check for structural clues; (4) use phonics generalizations to sound out as much of the word as necessary; and (5) consult the dictionary. It then discusses phonics integrated with content from reading, contends that there are suitable times to teach phonics, and outlines some basic principles in teaching phonics. The paper emphasizes that phonics should be taught as a means to an end, not an end in and of itself. The paper then discusses the different philosophies of phonics instruction: advocates of the basics believe that there is a core of phonics principles and generalizations that students should learn and use, while there are other teachers who emphasize a strong program of phonics instruction with a well-developed scope and sequence. Individualized reading, a holistic approach in reading instruction, is also discussed in the paper, as is behaviorism and the reading curriculum. The paper concludes with a consideration of objectives in the teaching of reading. (NKA)

This paper analyzes different approaches to assess learner achievement in the spelling curriculum. The following topics are discussed: assessment of spelling and the basal textbook, using spelling words for mastery based on research, individualized spelling, use of spelling words in context, standardized spelling tests, and the functional approach of teaching spelling as needed. The paper considers special spelling programs in software packages, such as drill and practice programs, tutorial programs, and gaming. The paper points out that a quality spelling program stresses worthwhile objectives for students to attain and that learning opportunities need to provide for individual differences and assist learners to achieve vital objectives in spelling. (NKA)

This position paper of the International Reading Association (IRA) calls for an immediate increase in funding for books in classroom, school, and town libraries. According to the paper, the condition of these libraries has weakened over the last decade--there are fewer books per child, and the condition of the books and the staffing of the libraries have seriously deteriorated. The position paper contends that this trend must be reversed because children who have access to books are more likely to read for enjoyment, and thus increase their reading skills and their desire to read to learn. Libraries must purchase a sufficient number of new books per student and they must make a concentrated effort to replace older materials. Genres should include picture storybooks, novels, biography, fiction and nonfiction material, magazines, poetry, and a multitude of other types to suit the interests and range of reading abilities of all children. The paper considers several questions and implications regarding children's "access to books," and offers recommendations for teachers, librarians, and school administrators, as well as for researchers. Contains 16 references and list 9 related IRA publications. (NKA)

This paper contends that, if pupils are to achieve as optimally as possible, the principal needs to provide quality leadership in having teachers stress vital principles of learning from educational psychology. The paper states that there are selected principles of learning that all schools of psychology emphasize. It first enumerates and elaborates on five of these principles. Noting that there are specific schools of thought in the psychology of learning that principals need to understand to help their teachers in teaching pupils, the paper then discusses these diverse psychologies of learning, including (1) the measurement movement; (2) constructivism; and (3) pupil decision-making. The paper also considers the contributions of Jerome Bruner and Jean Piaget, two outstanding educational psychologists. It continues by discussing the basics in the curriculum, that is, the importance of pupils learning what is basic. Finally, the paper concludes by reiterating the different psychologies of learning. (Contains 14 references.) (NKA)

Considering how literature for children provides more than just word recognition skills and thinking skills, this paper discusses several reasons why there should be a good children's literature curriculum in the school setting. It points out how children can experience life vicariously through good literature; how good literature can aid a child in making good choices in life; how children's literature provides avenues for relaxation and recreation; how reading children's literature can be a guidance resource; how children can become knowledgeable about different careers; how children's literature provides a springboard for creative thinking activities on the part of pupils; and how children's literature may be directly related to social studies, science, mathematics, the language arts, art, music, and physical education. It lists 10 guidelines for the teacher to assess his/her achievement in guiding optimal pupil achievement in children's literature. The paper discusses the evaluation of pupil progress in children's literature. It concludes by pointing out that pupils individually select and sequence their progress and achievement when choosing their own library books. (SC)

The reading teacher needs to choose students' reading goals carefully. This paper considers some of these possible goals, and states that, in the reading curriculum, the teacher needs to guide pupils to move upward on the cognitive level of objectives. The paper also states that pupils need to achieve well in the affective dimension of objectives, which involve the feeling and emotional aspects of learning. It suggests 10 ways that the teacher can help pupils develop positive attitudes toward the reading curriculum, including: having pupils listen to stories read by the teacher and discuss the subject matter; having a pupil select a library book to read for enjoyment; and allowing pupils in a committee to dramatize content read from a reading selection. The paper also discusses Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences and how it can be used in reading instruction. Finally, the paper discusses various philosophies of education which can be tied to reading instruction, including idealism, realism, experimentalism, existentialism, perennialism, and the "Big Book" philosophy. The paper concludes that pupils need to experience a match between their own preferences and learning styles with a specific plan of reading instruction. (NKA)