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In Dechen (Bde chen) County, Yunnan Province, a Tibetan county of the People's Republic of China, prominent lay Buddhist practitioners work to resist and mitigate the impacts of agrochemical pollution and climate change on sacred landscapes. In this region of northwest Yunnan officially renamed and dubbed "Shangri-La" by the local and national state for tourism purposes, and in alignment of this name with the term Shambala, a place of divine serenity in Tibetan Buddhism, the protagonists in this paper insist that chemical futures and pollution are only adding to the creation of a "fake" Shangri-La, and that more than human- and nature-centric views are necessary in building a more ecologically sound future. This paper ethnographically analyses these activities and motivations in the context of ecocentric views surrounding indigenous Tibetan more-than-human spirit worlds. I ask what drives rural Tibetan grape-growers to pursue an ecologically friendly agenda. Motivations include observation of chemical degradation on land, Buddhist ethics, local land worship, and conceptions that being a local Tibetan should revolve around the preservation of sacred landscapes and mountain gods and spirits rather than purely economic profit and development. A critical variable, however, is that lay Buddhists holding these beliefs are exceptions, with most villages showing more concern for the economic benefits of new cash agricultures over sacred landscapes and spirits. I argue that while many villagers are willing to ignore the long-term vitality of the sacred landscape in favour of economic prosperity and view new economic activities as morally acceptable within Tibetan spirituality, some individuals insist that preserving the local landscape is paramount to a sustainable future both locally and across Greater China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper rethinks the relationships between capitalist development in indigenous places and the fabric of local differences and specificities. It first develops a critical appraisal of the celebration of ethnic identities, local agency and indigenous knowledge in existing literatures. It suggests that, based on such insights, we can further envision the possibility of questioning and problematising the ontology and concept of the capitalist economy. Above all, this paper is interested in non‐capitalist factors percolating into capitalist economies and creating fissures in their logical and ontological coherence. It examines how capitalist economies depend on local specificities to achieve particular configurations. We elucidate this argument with a case study of indigenous development in Lugu Lake, Southwest China, which is inhabited by the ethnic Mosuo people. Through the dual lenses of land and labour, we pay special attention to the transition from grassroots development initiatives to heavy dependence on exogenous capital and entrepreneurs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In post-socialist China, the village's collective management over community farmland, forestry, and other resources has been greatly undermined since China's reform and opening up in the early 1980s. The subsequent rural-urban migration has further dismantled rural communities. Efforts have been made to revitalise the countryside, yet little success has been achieved. This paper closely examines one community reconstruction case that experienced two development stages: village committee-led internal development based on collective management of community resources, and tourism development externally subsidised by the government. Unsuccessful as it is, the case shows the vital role of collective resource management in comparison to external subsidies and investment in community reconstruction. It also suggests that a strong community leadership can initiate the process of community reconstruction, but a lack of mobilisation and participation of community members creates underlying issues that threaten its sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Farming plot reconstruction engineering is important in mitigating cultivated land fragmentation and promoting intensified production in hilly mountainous regions. As an anthropogenic disturbance, farming plot reconstruction and subsequent agricultural intensification have considerable effects on cultivated land, ecological environments, and pedogenesis. Although researchers have given considerable attention to changes in the physical and nutrient properties of soil in reconstructed farming plots, the connection between soil engineering and anthropogenic pedogenesis is often neglected. In this paper, we compared samples obtained during farming plot reconstruction engineering and agricultural intensification in terms of different soil properties. The results indicated that reconstruction changed the soil profile patterns from A–C to A–B–C, thereby significantly increasing the soil thickness, bulk density, clay content, pH, soil organic carbon, total nitrogen, C/N ratio, and cation exchange capacity. The geochemical composition notably varied in topsoil; the chemical index of alteration (CIA) and the chemical index of weathering (CIW) decreased markedly, and the Na 2 O/K 2 O ratio (Na/K) increased slightly. After a period of agricultural intensification, the physical and chemical properties of soil improved gradually with a high coefficient of variation. However, the soil exhibited Mg and Ca leaching and K and Na accumulation, and the intensity of chemical weathering was not significantly stronger with higher CIA values, higher CIW values, and lower Na/K ratios. These changes indicated that the anthropogenic disturbances from soil engineering accelerated the physical weathering and uniformity of purple soil but depressed soil chemical weathering to some extent. The anthropogenic disturbances of agricultural intensification disrupted the homogeneity of soils but did not significantly promoted the physical and chemical weathering of purple soil. This study provides guidelines for rational soil usage in reconstructed farming plots and may aid in soil classification. • Soil engineering accelerates physical weathering but destroys chemical weathering. • Agricultural intensification has positive impacts on soil quality. • Anthropogenic disturbances create a problem for soil classification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Zhaotong lignite (ZL), a soft lignite from southwest of China, is an abundant coal resource. However, it has not been utilized on large scale due to its very high moisture content and low calorific value. Drying and depolymerization technologies of ZL for upgrading or producing valuable gases, value-added chemicals, and/or liquid fuels have been widely investigated in laboratories. This paper introduces geological setting and chemical structures of ZL. Drying and depolymerization technologies (including thermal dissolution, pyrolysis, and supercritical water gasification) of ZL are reviewed in detail. Different drying methods have different merits and demerits. Thermal dissolution (especially ethanolysis) of ZL under mild conditions can be used to produce oxygen-containing compounds. Pyrolysis of ZL follows the second-order kinetics and optimal temperatures for preparing tar and valuable gases are distinct. High yields of H 2 and CH 4 are generated from supercritical water gasification of ZL. In addition, future investigations on efficient utilization of ZL are advised. Although the topic of this review mainly focused on a specific lignite, the drying and depolymerization technologies are also applied to other low-rank coals, especially lignites. Highlights • Drying and depolymerization technologies of Zhaotong lignite (ZL) are reviewed. • Advantages and disadvantages of different drying approaches are presented. • High yield of ESP rich in phenols and esters can be obtained from thermal dissolution of ZL. • Optimal temperatures for producing tar and gases from ZL pyrolysis are 600 and 700–800 °C, respectively. • SCWG of ZL without extra dry pretreatment can be used to obtain H 2 and CH 4. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paddy fields and water storage facilities are seriously damaged by the coal mine subsiding in the hilly post-mining and subsidence-stable areas in China, which make the farmers there being suffered greatly from the lack of water for traditional rice cultivation and daily life. The purpose of this paper is to find a method to restore the damaged paddy fields, thereby promoting sustainable development of land resources, and alleviating the contradiction between people and land, as well as creating a more inhabitable environment. The research methodology included field experiments, cultivated observation, and field investigation. This paper selected the Songzao Mining Area as the research area, and focused on the restoration technologies of damaged paddy fields, through the following four different measures at three experimental fields: (1) Traditional repeated cattle plowing (CK); (2) Water retention agent with repeated cattle plowing (W&C); (3) Film without holes under tilth depth (FO); and (4) Film with holes under tilth depth (FW). At last, a contrastive analysis of the four measures was made according to the results of the experiments. The results show that the use of water retaining agent with repeated cattle plowing (W&C) can be the most appropriate method to restore the damaged paddy field in the hilly post-mining and subsidence-stable area in southwest China. Compared with the other three measures, its water productivity is the maximum (0.81 kg/m3), and the net income is the highest (1 403 $/hm2). What's more, it is simple, short time-consuming, and low cost, which is benefit to generalize the use of this restoration technology [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to explore the effects of 2 kinds of biomass improver, corn straw and EM inoculants on soil erosion factors (rainfallerodibility R and soil erodibility K) in southwest China, this paper used the micro plot (1 m x 1 m) and unified the slope, used 2 kinds of biomass improver in ration and set the original soil to observe and analyze the changes of runoff and sediment and the changes of physical and chemical properties on soil. The results show that both of the 2 improved methods compared with original soil have the function of reducing soil erosion: in the rainy season (from June to October), soil erosion under the straw returning to field decreases by 52. 8%, 53%, 63%, 62. 1% and 63. 5% respectively, and soil erosion under the microbial inoculant application decreases by 34%, 33. 9%, 43. 7%, 39. 2% and 41. 3% respectively; percent of soil erosion degree: straw returning to field < microbial inoculant application < original control, soil erosion amount and soil erosion factors show good correlation, the ranges of correlation coefficient are 0. 733 7-0. 993 1 and 0. 692 1-0. 974 3 respectively, and the 2 different ways of straw returning and microbial inoculant application can significantly reduce K value, the numerical ranges are 0. 215 8-0. 249 6 and 0. 297 9-0. 320 4 respectively. The comprehensive analysis shows that the soil erosion and soil erosion factors are significantly correlated with the biomass improvement and the effect of R on soil erosion in the center of Yunnan Province is greater than that of K; 2 kinds of biomass soil improvement methods can effectively enhance soil corrosion resistance and the consolidation effect of straw returning to field is greater than that of the microbial inoculant application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rainfall erosivity is one important factor that controls soil erosion. The interannual variability of rainfall erosivity in southeast China connected to the ENSO (El Niño-Southern Oscillation). Rainfall erosivity across southeast China was assessed using daily rainfall data from 60 meteorological stations during the period from 1980 to 2013. We determined that models of erosivity based on daily rainfall can accurately predict annual rainfall erosivity. This paper presents a study of the effects of Niño3.4 SST (Sea Surface Temperatures) anomalies, the SOI (Southern Oscillation Index) and the MEI (Multivariate El Niño–Southern Oscillation Index) on rainfall erosivity in the southeast of China. Results indicated that average rainfall erosivity is stronger during El Niño events and weaker during La Niña events. Correlation analyses were applied to rainfall erosivity and Niño3.4 SST anomalies, SOI, and MEI. The effects of Niño3.4 SST and SOI on rainfall erosivity are evident, as demonstrated by a statistically significant correlation (> 95% confidence level). MEI was the best indicator ( P < 0.01) for representing the state of the ENSO. Results further indicated that 45, 31, and 40 of the 60 meteorological stations showed a significant correlation ( P < 0.05) between rainfall erosivity and SST anomalies, SOI, and MEI, respectively. Most of these stations were located in western Fujian Province. The ENSO was determined to exert the strongest influence on rainfall erosivity. This information would be useful in the implementation of new soil conservation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Managing multiple ecosystem services (ESs) in a win-win manner is a necessary and challenging task. However, our understanding of the spatial interactions among ESs is relatively limited, particularly in mountainous areas. Using the global biodiversity hotspot known as the Three Parallel Rivers Region in Southwest China as a case study, this paper systematically investigated the spatial trade-offs and synergies among 8 ESs (i.e. crop production, livestock-raising, water supply, carbon storage, carbon sequestration, soil retention, habitat support and nature recreation). We mapped the township-level distributions of the 8 ESs and measured their relationships using Spearman’s rank correlation coefficients and overlap analyses of ES hotspots/coldspots. Four types of ES bundles were identified by applying the K-means clustering analysis to the 8 ESs. Our results revealed high to moderate levels of interactions among most pairs of ESs. Most provisioning services showed trade-offs with ESs of the other categories, whereas most regulating services demonstrated synergies with other ESs. The ES bundles presented a reasonable set of ecological zones that were characterized by the provisions of different ESs. The spatial patterns of ESs and their interactions corresponded well to the regional socio-ecological gradients in topography, climate and human activities. Our results should have important applications in regional decision-makings on economic development and environmental conservation. This study also provides a good case for demonstrating the complex relationships among ESs in a typical mountainous biodiversity hotspot. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The post-Mao era (1976–present) has seen a number of great changes in China. Two of these – the revival of religion and the emergence of a nascent, but powerful environmental movement – have come together in a unique way in the revitalisation ofdongbareligion among the Naxi nationality (pop. 300,000) of northwest Yunnan and southwest Sichuan provinces. This paper examines the relations between indigenous Naxi and outside tourists (mainly Han from other parts of China) through multiple lenses, including traditional Naxi cosmologies and theories of kinship and hospitality, as well as contemporary ideas concerning tourism development and environmental protection. The aim is to show that: (1) Naxi theories of alterity occur at multiple levels simultaneously – gods/demons vs. humans, kin vs. non-kin, native vs. stranger, host vs. guest, etc. – but that a unified logic underlies the relations, transactions, and interpenetration of these groups and (2) this logic is a productive force in its own right, that is, capable of harnessing new situations to it, even as it itself evolves as novel meanings are engendered in the process of intentional action. In all of this, one figure stands out: thedongba, a traditional shaman-priest viewed as a kind of mediator or facilitator in interactions and exchanges involving a wide range of human and non-human subjects. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Mercury (Hg) isotopes have been proven as a useful tracer in understanding sources and biogeochemical processes of Hg in the environment. However, the use of this tracer has not yet been explored in economic geology. This paper investigates the concentrations and isotopic compositions of Hg in sulfide minerals from the Jinding deposit, the largest Zn-Pb deposit in China. Total mercury concentration (HgT) is highly variable: with the highest in sphalerite (472–1010 ng·g −1 ), intermediate concentrations in pyrite (195–342 ng·g −1 ) and the lowest in galena (65–310 ng·g −1 ). The variation was likely due to the fact that Hg 2+ can more readily substitute for Zn 2+ than for Fe 2+ and Pb 2+ , but an influence of different parental fluids on the isotopic composition of the sulfide minerals cannot be excluded. An overall range of δ 202 Hg from −3.17 to −0.57‰ is observed in the sulfides. Samples from the early stage feature the enrichments of light Hg isotopes, with δ 202 Hg ranging from −3.17 to –1.59‰, suggesting significant mass-dependent fractionation during the transport and/or deposition of Hg. However, the volatilization of aqueous Hg(0) during boiling of hydrothermal fluids was likely the most important process causing the observed fractionation. Relatively higher δ 202 Hg values (−1.84 to −0.57‰) of the late stage samples indicate that the Hg was rarely fractionated from its sources. Additionally, small but significant mass-independent fractionations are measured for the deposit with Δ 199 Hg ranging from −0.06 to 0.10‰, indicating that the Hg may have been derived from the sedimentary rocks of the Lanping Basin. Finally, we conclude that Hg isotopes have the potential to be a new tracer of sources of ore-forming materials, as well as pathways of fluid evolution in hydrothermal deposits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Generalized inversion is one of the important steps in the quantitative interpretation of gravity data. With appropriate algorithm and parameters, it gives a view of the subsurface which characterizes different geological bodies. However, generalized inversion of gravity data is time consuming due to the large amount of data points and model cells adopted. Incorporating of various prior information as constraints deteriorates the above situation. In the work discussed in this paper, a method for fast nonlinear generalized inversion of gravity data is proposed. The fast multipole method is employed for forward modelling. The inversion objective function is established with weighted data misfit function along with model objective function. The total objective function is solved by a dataspace algorithm. Moreover, depth weighing factor is used to improve depth resolution of the result, and bound constraint is incorporated by a transfer function to limit the model parameters in a reliable range. The matrix inversion is accomplished by a preconditioned conjugate gradient method. With the above algorithm, equivalent density vectors can be obtained, and interpolation is performed to get the finally density model on the fine mesh in the model domain. Testing on synthetic gravity data demonstrated that the proposed method is faster than conventional generalized inversion algorithm to produce an acceptable solution for gravity inversion problem. The new developed inversion method was also applied for inversion of the gravity data collected over Sichuan basin, southwest China. The established density structure in this study helps understanding the crustal structure of Sichuan basin and provides reference for further oil and gas exploration in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Southwest China, most regions are mountainous, where traditional drill-and-blast method is adopted to excavate relatively harder rocks. However, blasting would cause vibration to adjacent structures and might result in damage or even failure. This paper considers a case where subway tunnel is overlying an existing railway tunnel, while the excavation requires blasting method. Vibration and stress distribution are calculated via Dynamic Finite Element Method (DFEM) for both full-face excavation and CD method. Result shows that vibration induced by CD method is only 28% of that caused by full-face blasting with same distance. Peak vibration is located on the lining facing the blasting source, while peak tensile stress is on the other side of the contour due to the reflection of stress wave on strata boundary. And peak value of tensile stress induced by full-face blasting is capable of causing lining failure; thus full-face blasting is not suggested within 40 m beyond the underlying tunnel axis. However, CD method has shown much advantage, since blasting within 25 m is also considered safe to the underlying tunnel. But when the blasting source is as near as 12 m within the underlying tunnel, the CD method is no longer safe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reconstructing ancient diets and the use of animals and plants augment our understanding of how humans adapted to different environments. Yunnan Province in southwest China is ecologically and environmentally diverse. During the Neolithic and Bronze Age periods, this region was occupied by a variety of local culture groups with diverse subsistence systems and material culture. In this paper, we obtained carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotopic ratios from human and faunal remains in order to reconstruct human paleodiets and strategies for animal exploitation at the Bronze Age site of Shilinggang (ca. 2500 Cal BP) in northwest Yunnan Province. The δ13C results for human samples from Shilinggang demonstrate that people’s diets were mainly dominated by C3-based foodstuffs, probably due to both direct consumption of C3 food and as a result of C3 foddering of consumed animals. Auxiliary C4 food signals can also be detected. High δ15N values indicate that meat was an important component of the diet. Analysis of faunal samples indicates that people primarily fed pigs and dogs with human food waste, while sheep/goats and cattle were foddered with other food sources. We compare stable isotope and archaeobotanical data from Shilinggang with data from other Bronze Age sites in Yunnan to explore potential regional variation in subsistence strategies. Our work suggests that people adopted different animal utilization and subsistence strategies in different parts of Yunnan during the Bronze Age period, probably as local adaptations to the highly diversified and isolated environments in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coal plays an important role in the Chinese energy source. The heavy metals released from combustion process stay in the environment and are not easily degraded. This paper examines 8 coal samples from China. It explores the content, characteristics, transformation and control of heavy metals through the microwave digestion, sequential chemical extraction, static burning test and X-ray diffraction (XRD) methods. The zinc (Zn) and cadmium (Cd) in coal mainly exist in exchangeable, sulfide, and residual forms. The arsenic (As) content is mainly present in the sulfide binding state. For these three elements, degrees of organic speciation are not considered to be important and the residue speciation mainly occurs in coal ash. After coal combustion, the heavy metals in coal ash are relatively enriched, and the harm to the environment cannot be ignored. Most of the Cd, As and Zn residues are released into the atmosphere and their volatility rates can be ordered as follows: As > Zn > Cd. There are significant differences in mineral composition between the main phases and mineral carriers of heavy metals in coal and ash. Based on these differences, modified calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ) is used as an additive. In orthogonal experiment, the optimal parameters for treating heavy metals are the temperature (1000 °C), metal salt (Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 ), and ion ratio (γ = 15). Under this condition, the volatilization rates of heavy metals (As, Cd and Zn) decreased remarkably. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cooperation theories assume that interacting individuals can change their strategies under different expected payoffs, depending on their social status or social situations. When looking at sex differences in cooperation, the existing studies have found that the genders cooperate at similar frequencies. However, the majority of the data originate within Western human societies. In this paper, we explore whether there are gender differences in cooperation in China. An Iterated Prisoner’s Dilemma game with a punishment option was used to gather data about Southwest Chinese subjects in a culture in which men have a hierarchical advantage over women. Results indicate that men invested into partners significantly more than women did (34% ♂ vs. 24% ♀) while women, in turn, were more likely to defect (65% ♀ vs. 50% ♂). In this region, women have customarily held less economic power and they are used to obtain a payoff typically lower than men. We suggest that the women’s willingness to invest in cooperation has decreased throughout evolutionary time, providing us with an illustration of a culturally-driven shift towards a disparity in gender cooperation interests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sichuan Province is one of the most important economic inland areas and is characterized by an abundance of renewable energy resources in the form of solar, wind, biomass, and, in particular, hydropower. After the rapid growth of installed hydropower capacity during the past decade, the non-hydro renewable energy resource development is booming in Sichuan Province. This development is bringing about a series of problems as well. In this paper, we give an overview of Sichuan׳s renewable energy development in the past five years, analyze the existing problems, and examine the underlying causes in terms of environment, market, technology, and policy. On that basis, we propose a method for future renewable energy development in Sichuan and suggest that Sichuan׳s government should improve the pricing mechanism and the mandatory share policy for non-hydro renewable energy. Additionally, R&D on the plateau type of wind turbines and the smart micro-grid should be strengthened. Finally, given the mature hydropower industry in Sichuan, the combined operation of wind–hydro and solar–hydro plants is recommended to improve the stability of renewable electricity generation output. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Red mudstone landslides are widespread in southwest of China. The development and distribution of deep-seated landsides with slow inclination are closely related to the special soft rock properties of the red mudstone layers. Most previous studies focused on the failure mechanisms of rain-induced shallow landslides. Studies on deep-seated landslides in red layer zones are still limited. In order to ascertain the basic failure mechanisms of red layer landslides with a gentle inclination, a fatal landslide named as Shibangou landslide, which occurred in Sichuan, China, was investigated. This paper aims to (1) conduct laboratory tests on the reduction in shear strength of a red layer to identify the water–rock coupling effect; (2) investigate variations in the microscopic structure of the soft rock found within a red layer after rainfall infiltration; (3) discuss the failure mechanisms of red layer landslides with slow inclination. Results from shear test of mudstone from the Shibangou landslide revealed that there is a tendency that behavior of soft rock can be transferred to soil in different days of immersion. The delineation threshold of shear strength of the red layer is determined as 6 days of immersion. Microstructures of clay minerals become loose and porous due to the contacts between the particles transferred from the face–edges, face–face associations into edge–edge, and face–edge associations. Therefore, the intramolecular and cemented expansions of illite are the basic mechanisms which lead to structural damage, structural decay, and strength attenuation of soft rock in red layer under the condition of rainwater infiltration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Determination of soil nitrogen distributions and the factors affecting them is critical for nitrogen fertilizer management and prevention of nitrogen pollution. In this paper, the spatiotemporal variations of soil nitrogen and the relative importance of their affecting factors were analysed at a county scale in the purple hilly area of the mid-Sichuan Basin in Southwest China based on soil data collected in 1981 and 2012. Statistical results showed that soil total nitrogen (TN) increased from 0.88 g kg − 1 in 1981 to 1.12 g kg − 1 in 2012, whereas available nitrogen (AN) decreased from 84.22 mg kg − 1 to 74.35 mg kg − 1 . In particular, AN showed a significant decrease in agricultural ecosystems but remained stable in woodland and grassland. Correspondingly, most of the study area exhibited increased TN content and decreased AN content in space. The nugget/sill ratios of TN and AN increased from 0.419 to 0.608 and from 0.733 to 0.790, whereas spatial correlation distances decreased from 12.00 km to 9.50 km and from 9.50 km to 9.00 km, respectively, suggesting that the spatial dependence of soil nitrogen became weaker and that the extrinsic factors played increasingly important roles in affecting the soil nitrogen distribution. Soil group and land use type were the two dominant factors in 1981, followed by topographic factors, vegetation coverage and parent material, whereas land use type became the most important factor in 2012, and the relative contribution of topographic factors declined markedly. The results suggested that land use related to cultivation management and fertilizer application was the decisive factor for soil nitrogen change. The increase in TN content and the decrease in AN content over the study period also suggested improper use of nitrogen fertilizer, which can result in nitrogen loss through increasing nitrification rates. Thus, effective measures should be taken to increase the uptake rate of nitrogen and prevent nitrogen pollution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the mineralogical and geochemical compositions of the Late Permian coals in the Liulong Mine, Liuzhi Coalfield, Western Guizhou Province, China, by using XRD, SEM-EDX, ICP-AES and ICP-MS. Both the No.3 and No.7 Coals are classified as low volatile bituminous coal. However, the No.3 Coal is a medium-ash (29.8% on average) and high-sulfur (4.76% on average) coal while the No.7 Coal is a low-ash (12.4% on average) and medium-sulfur (2.16% on average) coal. Major minerals in both coal seams include quartz, pyrite, marcasite, kaolinite, calcite, and to a lesser extent, gypsum and anatase. Illite, chlorite, rectorite, albite, ankerite and siderotil are only present in the No.3 Coal. The No.3 Coal contains higher elemental concentrations than the No.7 Coal probably due to the higher mineral contents in the No.3 Coal, and is enriched in Nb and Ta, and to a lesser extent in K, Ti, Li, V, Co, Cu, Sr, Zr, Mo and Ba. The mineralogical and geochemical data presented in this study have shown that the No.3 Coal was formed under a higher degree of marine-influenced coal-forming environment than the No.7 Coal. However, the both Coals have the Kangdian Upland (made of mafic igneous rocks, such as basalt rocks) as sediment-source region like other coals from Guizhou Province. Three geological factors control the geochemical patterns of the No.3 and No.7 Coals, namely: (1) the high detrital input in the No.3 Coal causing high ash yields; (2) the sediment-source region (Kangdian Upland basalt) causing high Ti, Nb and Ta contents, and a minor proportion of Co, Cr, V and Cu, when combined with the high detrital input in the No.3 Coal; (3) the higher degree of marine influenced depositional environment in the No.3 Coal causing a high S, Sr and Ba contents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Karst rocky desertification occurs after vegetation deteriorates as a result of intensive land use, which leads to severe water loss and soil erosion and exposes basement rocks, creating a rocky landscape. Karst rocky desertification is found in humid areas in southwest China, the region most seriously affected by rocky desertification in the world. In order to promote ecological restoration and help peasants out of poverty, the Chinese government carried out the first phase of a rocky desertification control project from 2006 to 2015, which initially contained the expansion of rocky desertification. Currently, the Chinese government is prepared to implement the second phase of the rocky desertification control project, and therefore it is essential to summarise the lessons learned over the last 10 years of the first phase. In this paper, we analyse the driving social and economic factors behind rocky desertification, summarise the scientific research on rocky desertification in the region, and finally identify the main problems facing rocky desertification control. In addition, we put forward several policy suggestions that take into account the perspective of local peasants, scientific research, and China's economic development and urbanisation process. These suggestions include promoting the non-agriculturalization of household livelihoods, improving ecological compensation, strengthening the evaluation of rocky desertification control and dynamic monitoring, and strengthening research on key ecological function recovery technologies and supporting technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The distinctive features of the Lower Devonian rocks of the Longmenshan area in southwestern China are brachiopod shell concentrations, especially in the Bailiuping, Ganxi and Xiejiawan Formations, where brachiopod shell concentrations occur widely throughout. Depending on the dominant skeletal elements, six types of shell concentrations can be distinguished: Protochonete , Acrospirifer , Howellella , Orientospirifer , polyspecific shell and polyspecific fragments concentrations. According to the shell features, taphonomic signature, host sediments and their relationships, four genetic models of the various shell concentrations are described in this paper. The genetic processes and distributions along an onshore–offshore area were clarified on the base of taphonomic analysis. Pavements of opportunistic species of Protochonetes are autochthonous assemblages living in quieter, deeper, more offshore waters near the maximum storm wave base. The pavements are the result of reduced sedimentation; the substrate was silty and water-saturated with variable turbidity soupy-mud. Transport by high-energy processes is interpreted as the final formation process of polyspecific fragments concentrations with most extensive scope from intertidal zone to the maximum storm wave base. The Acrospirifer , Howellella , and Orientospirifer concentrations have been stirred by storm wave action and quickly buried after short transport tempestite model. They are most easily preserved around the average storm wave-base. The polyspecific shell concentrations, which include large bivalves are autochthonous assemblages living in shallow and relatively quieter water near shore environments. Autochthonous assemblages of the opportunist Protochonetes bailiupingensis occurring in the Bailiuping Formation of the Longmenshan area not only record of storm events, but are also important features to identify and correlate the Bailiuping Formation in the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The reconstruction of complex political formations in tropical and subtropical environments has long been challenged by the ephemeral nature of archaeological deposits and the detectability of a settlement hierarchy. This paper presents findings from systematic archaeological surveys in the Lake Dian basin in southwest China to evaluate processes of political differentiation during the Bronze Age (ca. BC 900–100) and identified with the protohistoric kingdom of Dian. We discuss the problems of interpreting political consolidation based on mono-centers and ranked site size distributions. Our approach considers the contingent forms that ‘built’ landscapes can take in the humid subtropics in an effort to understand the variable relationship between politics and spatial scale. Combining traditional survey as well as subsurface methods suited for intensively worked paddy landscapes, we discuss the emergence and timing of multiple nucleated settlements as indicative of peer polity dynamics in the basin and examine the formation histories of large shell mound sites to highlight physical modifications that embedded central places during the Bronze Age period. We show that the boundary between on-site and off-site, living and non-living spaces is not solely determined by the availability of prime land but also by spatial conventions with discrete cultural and historical ramifications. By contextualizing macroscale views on complexity with an understanding of local scales of landscape transformation, we provide an alternative to models of pristine state formation based in temperate alluvial environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reviews critically the Permian–Triassic (P–Tr) fossil plants and microflora recorded in three well-studied terrestrial Permian–Triassic boundary (PTB) sections, namely Chahe, Zhejue, and Jiucaichong, and two marine–terrestrial transitional PTB sections, namely Mide and Tucheng, in western Guizhou Province and eastern Yunnan Province (WGEY), Southwest China. Distinct floral composition, abundance and diversity across the PTB allow the establishment of two terrestrial macrofloral assemblages. The Lobatannularia multifolia–Gigantoclea guiyangensis (L–G) assemblage was recognized from the upper Xuanwei Formation, while the Annalepis – Peltaspermum (A–P) assemblage from the lower Kayitou Formation. The former flora comprises 105 species in 39 genera and is late Changhsingian in age. The latter assemblage includes 18 species in 14 genera and is Induan in age. The Changhsingian assemblage is characterized by the loss of many Wuchiapingian elements of the Gigantopteris flora and an increase of the gymnosperms. Most of the Permian-type plant taxa were wiped out in the PTB crisis on land with only few relicts persisting into the Early Triassic, which saw the flourishing of Annalepis and common presence of Peltaspermum and Permian relicts of the gigantopterids. During the Permian–Triassic transition some rare gigantopterids elements as well as some Peltaspermum representatives survived the biocrisis. Annalepis a pioneering lycopsid genus in the recovery of the Triassic land plants, and its proliferation marks the recovery of land plants after the PTB crisis on land in WGEY. Accordingly, vegetation changeover across the PTB is marked by a dramatic turnover of plants on land from the Permian Gigantopteris flora to the Triassic Annalepis -dominated assemblage. Palynofloras are characterized by a dramatic drop of palynomorphs in both abundance and diversity and show a stepwise extinction pattern. Moreover, macro- and microfloras of the WGEY region indicate that humid and warm climate regime prevailed through the P–Tr transition in Southwest China. The coal forming-swamps gradually migrated westward due to marine transgressions throughout the Late Permian. The “ Gigantopteris flora” also migrated from east to west and a few species can survive into the earliest Triassic in the WGEY region, but disappeared soon after. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Various approaches have been developed for identifying statistically homogeneous regions or structural domains in a jointed rock mass based on joint orientations or the other joint parameters; however, few studies have been conducted by integrating both. In this paper, nine parameters are considered for this identification, namely: orientation, spacing, aperture, roughness, trace length, trace type, filling, groundwater condition, and weathering. A statistical parameter, known as the correlation coefficient, is used to quantify the degree of the similarity between the joint parameters collected from four adjacent adits at the Songta dam site on the upper reaches of the Nu River in southwest China. Based on the analytic hierarchy process, the weights of the parameters are obtained. The overall homogeneity of the rock mass around the studied regions is determined based on the homogeneity index. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A soil–rock mixture (SRM) is a type of heterogeneous geomaterial, and the particle distribution of SRM can be described by fractal theory. At present, it is difficult to quantify the fractal dimension of a particle size distribution and understand the scale effect in SRMs. In this study, the fractal theory and discrete element method (DEM) were introduced to solve this problem. First, the particle gradation of SRM was dealt with by using fractal theory. The fractal structure of particle distribution was studied, and a method of calculation of the fractal dimension is presented in this paper. Second, based on the fractal dimension and relative threshold, the particle gradations of SRMs at different scales were predicted. Third, numerical direct shear tests of SRM at different scales were simulated by using the DEM. The scale effects of shear displacement, shear zone, and shear strength parameters were revealed. Last, taking the maximum particle size of 60 mm as the standard value, the piece-wise functional relationship between shear strength parameters and particle size was established. The results are as follows: for SRM in a representative engineering area, by plotting the relationship between particle cumulative mass percentage and particle size, we can judge whether the SRM has a fractal structure; in Southwest China, the frequency of the fractal dimension of the SRM is in the normal distribution, and the median fractal dimension is 2.62; the particle gradations of SRMs at different scales calculated by fractal dimension and relative threshold can expand the study scope of particle size analysis; when the particle size is less than 70 mm, the strength parameters show a parabolic trend with the particle size increases, and if not, a nearly linear trend is found. The proposed method can describe the fractal characteristics of SRM in a representative engineering area and provides a quantitative estimation of shear strength parameters of SRM at different scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Small hydropower plants, which are one of most important means for producing clean energy, have a high prestige in the carbon trade market. In this paper, a method for accounting the carbon dioxide emission of small hydropower plants is proposed. Twenty-six small hydropower plants (SHPs) in southwest China are chosen as a case study. The following results were found: (1) the carbon dioxide emission during the construction period (COE c ) per installed capacity ranged between 0.01957 t/kW and 0.1926 t/kW, with its average value 0.04592 t/kw; (2) the carbon dioxide emission during the construction period is classified into two groups; for each group, there is a reciprocal relationship between the installed capacity and the annual COE c per installed capacity, and (3) the annual CEO o (carbon dioxide emission during the operation period) declines with increasing installed capacity, the two related by a straight line. Specifically, when the installed capacity increases by 1 kW carbon emissions are reduced by 16.33 t. COE o is directly determined by hydropower. In addition, (4) the trend of carbon dioxide emission during the system lifecycle of SHPs is determined by COE o . The most important factor in determining the carbon dioxide emission of SHPs is to ensure the precise hydropower of SHPs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper the concentration distribution of lead (Pb), arsenic (As) and zinc (Zn) in seven coal samples taken from Southwest China were analysed by applying the sequential extraction method. The results showed that the total concentrations of these trace elements in different samples varied significantly, as did their distribution within some specific fractions. The highest percentages of these three elements are contained in the exchangeable and sulphide-bound fractions, which tend to be released into the atmosphere and therefore pose a threat to the environment and human health because of their high mobility and toxicity. The As concentration in the exchangeable fraction was only as high as 19·07 mg kg−1 in the Shuikuang sample, while in the other samples it was below the detection limit. The concentration in the sulphide-bound fraction accounted for 55·26%; thereby indicating a large amount of pyrite because of its sulphophile affinity. Most fractions of As and Zn were contained in the residual fraction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Identification and management the 'critical risk areas' where hotspot lead exposures are a potential risk to human health, become a major focus of public health efforts in China. But the knowledge of health risk assessment of lead pollution at regional and national scales is still limited in China. In this paper, under the guidance of 'sources-pathways-receptors' framework, regional human health risk assessment model for lead contamination was developed to calculate the population health risk in Yunnan province. And the cluster and AHP (analytic hierarchy process) analysis was taken to classify and calculate regional health risk and the decomposition of the regional health risk in the greatest health risk region, respectively. The results showed that Yunnan province can be divided into three areas. The highest health risk levels, located in northeastern Yunnan, including Kunming, Qujing, Zhaotong region. In those regions, lead is present at high levels in air, food, water and soil, and high population density which pose a high potential population risk to the public. The current study also reveals that most regional health risk was derived from the child receptors (age above 3 years) 4.3 times than the child receptors (age under 3years), and ingestion of lead-contaminated rice was found to be the most significant contributor to the health risk (accounting for more than 49 % health risk of total). This study can provide a framework for regional risk assessment in China and highlighted some indicators and uncertainties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drought is one of the most frequent climate-related disasters occurring in Southwest China, where the occurrence of drought is complex because of the varied landforms, climates and vegetation types. To monitor the comprehensive information of drought from meteorological to vegetation aspects, this paper intended to propose the optimized meteorological drought index (OMDI) and the optimized vegetation drought index (OVDI) from multi-source satellite data to monitor drought in three bio-climate regions of Southwest China. The OMDI and OVDI were integrated with parameters such as precipitation, temperature, soil moisture and vegetation information, which were derived from Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM), Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer Land Surface Temperature (MODIS LST), AMSR-E Soil Moisture (AMSR-E SM), the soil moisture product of China Land Soil Moisture Assimilation System (CLSMAS), and MODIS Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (MODIS NDVI), respectively. Different sources of satellite data for one parameter were compared with in situ drought indices in order to select the best data source to derive the OMDI and OVDI. The Constrained Optimization method was adopted to determine the optimal weights of each satellite-based index generating combined drought indices. The result showed that the highest positive correlation and lowest root mean square error (RMSE) between the OMDI and 1-month standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index (SPEI-1) was found in three regions of Southwest China, suggesting that the OMDI was a good index in monitoring meteorological drought; in contrast, the OVDI was best correlated to 3-month SPEI (SPEI-3), and had similar trend with soil relative water content (RWC) in temporal scale, suggesting it a potential indicator of agricultural drought. The spatial patterns of OMDI and OVDI along with the comparisons of SPEI-1 and SPEI-3 for different months in one year or one month in different years showed significantly varied drought locations and areas, demonstrating regional and seasonal fluctuations, and suggesting that drought in Southwest China should be monitored in seasonal and regional level, and more fine distinctions of seasons and regions need to be considered in the future studies of this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Identification of the main hydrocarbon source rocks of the large Puguang gas field (northeastern Sichuan Basin, southwest China) has been the subject of much discussion in recent years. A key aspect has been the lack of a comprehensive understanding of the development of hydrocarbon source rocks of the Upper Permian Longtan Formation, which had been thought to contain mainly coal seams and thick carbonate layers. In this paper, based on geological data from more than ten wells and outcrops and their related mineralogy and geochemistry, we investigated the depositional environment and main factors controlling organic matter enrichment in the Longtan Formation. We propose a model which combines information on the geological environment and biological changes over time. In the model, organic matter from prolific phytoplankton blooms was deposited in quiescent platform interior sags with rising sea-levels. During the Longtan period, the area from Bazhong to Dazhou was a platform interior sag with relatively deep water and a closed environment, which was controlled by multiple factors including syngenetic fault settling, isolation of submarine uplifts and rising sea-levels leading to water column stratification. Although the bottom water was anoxic, the phytoplankton were able to bloom in the well-lit upper euphotic zone thus giving rise to a set of sapropelic black shales and marlstones containing mostly algal organic matter with minor terrestrial contributions. As a consequence, these rocks have a high hydrocarbon generation potentials and can be classified as high-quality source rocks. The area from Bazhong to Dazhou is a center of hydrocarbon generation, being the main source of reservoired paleo-oils and presently discovered as pyrobitumen in the Puguang gas field. The identification of these source rocks is very important to guide future petroleum exploration in the northeastern Sichuan Basin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on data from the Southwest Basic Education Project, this paper provides an empirical estimation of gender gaps in Chinese and math among primary and lower-secondary school students in poor counties of Southwestern China. Major findings from 2-level HLM analysis by grade (3, 5, 7, and 9) include: (1) small positive gaps favoring girls in Chinese and negative gaps in math were found for all grades. (2) Gaps were larger in higher grades, girls’ advantage in Chinese experienced a small increase over the 2006–2010 period, and gaps varied by province. (3) Being a minority and having a low SES interplayed with gender in some circumstances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding how, why and by what mechanisms agricultural practices, technologies and products spread out of their zones of original development is a central theme of archaeology. To date, very few studies have combined agro-ecological modeling with detailed analyses of archaeobotanical remains to outline the kinds of challenges that ancient humans faced as they moved crops into environments different from their original homeland of domestication. This paper employs ecological niche modeling to outline the constraints faced by ancient humans as they moved rice, millets and eventually wheat and barley into the mountainous region of Southwest China. In particular, we propose that moving rice into this region presented considerable challenges for its cultivators and we infer that its spread into this area was facilitated by breeding cold adapted varieties of rice or by combining its cultivation with that of millet. High altitude areas did not take up full-scale agriculture until the introduction of cold adapted western Eurasian domesticates such as wheat and barley. The temperature niche models reinforce the adoption of these regionally varied agricultural strategies and support the significance of domesticates other than rice for the spread of agriculture into Southwest China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Liangshan region is located at the intersection of several cultural-geographic regions in Southwest China; it is dominated by the towering Hengduan Mountains, whose north–south oriented ridges channeled the early exchange along China's western frontier. The archaeological material from this region therefore provides an ideal case study for research on mechanisms of cultural contact and their environmental preconditions. This paper unlocks the research potential of the Liangshan region by first providing an overview of local prehistoric cultural developments and their geographic preconditions, focusing on signs of outside contacts and their possible origin; in a second step, it suggests routes and types of contact and their motivations. I argue that questions of cultural identity, inter-group contact, and human–environment interaction cannot be treated separately but have to be considered in combination. At the same time, the case at hand shows that the environment is not just a limiting or determining factor: even marginal environments can be used in a variety of ways and do not necessarily lead to conflict among neighboring populations. I therefore argue that in the emergence of contact networks and acceptance of foreign traits, cultural decisions are just as important as and sometimes even more important than geographic preconditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The dominant geological features of southwest China are high mountains with deep, steep slope valleys. Typically engineering projects constructed in these mountain areas have significant overburden depth with associated high in-situ stresses. Characteristic rheological phenomena in the surrounding rock mass produced by these conditions are observed during, and often after excavation of the underground caverns for a hydropower station. This paper describes one such project, the excavation of the Jinping I hydropower Station, located in Sichuan Province. Other than the rheological characteristics, spalling, splitting (observed in local sections), bending and heaving are prominent in the surrounding rock mass of these underground caverns during and after excavation. Coupled damage and rheology models were adopted in numerical analysis for stability evaluation. In addition, a splitting failure criterion and a prediction method for incremental deformation due to crack opening were incorporated in the analysis to estimate the splitting failure zones in the rock surrounding the underground caverns produced by excavation stress release. A block model test was carried out to formulate a method to estimate the incremental deformation due to the opening of cracks. Subsequently, the results were employed to modify the displacements obtained by the damage rheology model. Finally, the displacements, stresses and damage zones in the surrounding rock mass of the underground caverns for the project were predicted and analyzed. The computation results presented herein were found to compare favorably with measurements obtained from the field monitoring. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the 1980s, Hong Kong triad societies have evolved from hierarchical, pyramidal organizations to loose, compartmentalized syndicates that retain a modicum of hierarchy. Changes in triad organization and modus operandi occurred in response to stringent anti-organized crime measures enacted in Hong Kong. However, organizational evolution has facilitated triad transplantation to China and improved triads’ ability to engage in transnational crime. Triads have exploited favorable circumstances in China: prevalent corruption, rapid urbanization, and high demand for illicit goods and services. This paper includes two case studies of the Sun Yee On triad. The first examines Sun Yee On's localized activity by tracing the evolution of one Shenzhen area chapter. The second case study examines Sun Yee On's role as a supplier of methamphetamine precursor chemicals to Mexico's Sinaloa cartel. Sun Yee On exemplifies how modern triads have become hybridized, assuming attributes of both local Chinese organized crime and transnational criminal networks. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]