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1. A Pilot Study of the Use of Incentives to Enhance School Learning.

Author

American Institutes for Research in the Behavioral Sciences, Palo Alto, CA., Fox, Karen F. A., and Jung, Steven M.

Abstract

Incentives in this study were identified as the consequences of behavior which act to guide the future form and frequency of that behavior. This would include factors such as money, security, knowledge of personal success, peer or authority figure approval, and opportunity to engage in desirable activities. The study was designed to test over an eight-week instructional period the combined effects of three incentive models. The subject pool consisted of first, second, and third grade students from four of the eight elementary schools in San Jose, California district. The major purposes of this pilot study were to formulate the process of implementation of an incentives program and the methodology which would underlie subsequent field studies of incentive models. The statistical findings are generally supportive of the initial research hypothesis of the effectiveness of objective-based incentive techniques in promoting student learning in reading and mathematics at the primary level. This pilot study was funded by a Title III grant. (BW)

Published
1972

2. Teaching Mathematics Effectively to Primary Students in Developing Countries : Insights from Neuroscience and Psychology of Mathematics

Author

Soendergaard, Bettina Dahl and Cachaper, Cecile

Subjects
MATHEMATICS TEXTBOOKS, NATIONAL ASSESSMENT, TEACHING MATERIALS, UNIVERSITY STUDENTS, LEARNING OUTCOMES, ADVANCED STUDENTS, ADULT STUDENTS, BILINGUALISM, EXAMS, PRIMARY GRADE, CLASSROOM, MATHEMATICS, KNOWLEDGE BASE, YOUNG PEOPLE, SOCIAL STUDIES, LEARNING THEORIES, CURRICULA, ENROLLMENT RATES, SPEECH, UNIVERSITY LEVEL, SKILL DEVELOPMENT, REASONING, LEARNING DISABILITIES, SUBJECT MATTER, METAMEMORY, INTERVENTIONS, LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS, LEARNERS, READING, BASIC SKILLS, WORKBOOKS, TEACHERS, COMPETENCIES, CREATIVITY, STUDENTS LEARNING, SUBJECT AREAS, STUDENT ATTITUDES, LEARNING PROGRAMS, ELEMENTARY SCHOOL STUDENTS, HOMEWORK, COGNITIVE SKILLS, TEACHER, PLAYING, STUDENT PROGRESS, PRIMARY STUDENTS, FORMAL SCHOOLING, LESSON PLANNING, CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING, METACOGNITION, RECOGNITION, PROFESSIONAL GROWTH, SCHOOL CURRICULUM, PRIMARY TEACHING, YOUNG CHILDREN, COGNITIVE PROCESSES, APTITUDE, ANALOGICAL REASONING, INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY, INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS, LONG TERM MEMORY, GROSS ENROLLMENT, LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION, INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES, TEXTBOOKS, BELIEFS, EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE, ComputingMilieux_COMPUTERSANDEDUCATION, CURRICULAR REFORMS, ELEMENTS, PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE, TEACHER EXPECTATIONS, TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS, COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY, EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM, STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT, CONFORMITY, TUTORING, MENTAL REPRESENTATION, PROBLEM SOLVING, TEACHER EDUCATION, GER, NUTRITION, RESEARCHERS, TEACHING PROCESS, ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT, NORMAL TEACHING, MOTHER TONGUE, INSTRUCTION, PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS, GROSS ENROLLMENT RATES, OLD STUDENTS, CLASSROOM SIZE, STUDENT LEARNING, ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, ENROLLMENT RATIO, MATHEMATICS TEACHERS, COOPERATIVE LEARNING, LEARNING PRACTICES, PERCEPTION, PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT, PRIMARY TEACHERS, ATTENTION, QUALITY OF TEACHING, COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT, STUDENT OUTCOMES, INSTRUCTIONAL HOURS, MATHEMATICS EDUCATION, EARLY GRADES, NER, LEADERSHIP, GENDER, INTEGRATED LEARNING SYSTEMS, LEARNING ACTIVITIES, TEACHING METHOD, TUTORS, CHILDHOOD, GRADE LEVELS, INFANTS, ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS, EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES, EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH, MATH TEXTBOOKS, LEARNING PROCESS, TEST SCORES, RETENTION, EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES, LEARNING STYLES, COGNITIVE SCIENCE, LEARNING PROCESSES, COMPUTER TECHNOLOGIES, SUBJECTS, EDUCATORS, CURRICULUM, HOURS OF INSTRUCTION, PRIMARY GRADES, GIRLS, KINDERGARTEN, CONCEPTUAL KNOWLEDGE, ROTE LEARNING, DISSERTATIONS, LEARNING RESULTS, STUDENT PERFORMANCE, CBI, PRIMARY EDUCATION, MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, CRITICAL THINKING, LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT, SCHOOLS, PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS, ACHIEVEMENT SCORES, ACHIEVEMENT IN SCHOOL, TEACHER TRAINING, MATHEMATICS SKILLS, ABILITY LEVELS, DECISION MAKING, LEARNING GROUPS, ACHIEVEMENT TESTS, CLASSROOMS, PROFICIENCY, COMPETENCE, QUALITY OF LEARNING, STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DIFFICULTIES, CONTROL GROUPS, TEACHING PROGRAMS, LET, ARITHMETIC, COGNITIVE RESEARCH, CLASSROOM TEACHERS, LITERATURE, MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION, RESEARCH FINDINGS, PEDAGOGY, EARLY INTERVENTION, DIRECT INSTRUCTION, EDUCATIONAL SOFTWARE, FORMAL TEACHING, TEACHING METHODS, WORKING MEMORY, INCIDENTAL LEARNING, BILINGUAL PROGRAMS, MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM, PROBLEM SOLVING SKILLS, EDUCATION PROGRAMS, MATHEMATICS STUDENTS, ComputingMilieux_GENERAL, FORMAL EDUCATION, QUALITY TEACHING, ACHIEVEMENTS, TEACHER KNOWLEDGE, LEARNING DIFFICULTIES, NET ENROLLMENT, TEACHING PRACTICE, TEACHING, LEARNING, PRIMARY SCHOOLS, MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS, ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS, INSTRUCTIONAL TIME, INTUITION, TEACHER QUALIFICATIONS, PRIMARY SCHOOL, EFFECTIVE TEACHING, BILINGUAL EDUCATION, PRE-SCHOOL PROGRAMS, MOTIVATION, RECALL, FIRST GRADE, LEARNING MATHEMATICS, CLASS SIZE, END OF GRADE, LEARNING METHODS, GIFTED STUDENTS, INSTRUCTIONAL EFFICIENCY, NET ENROLLMENT RATIO, MATH ACHIEVEMENT
Abstract

This paper uses research from neuroscience and the psychology of mathematics to arrive at useful recommendations for teaching mathematics at primary level to poor students in developing countries. The enrollment rates of the poorer students have improved tremendously in the last decade. And the global Net Enrollment Ratio (NER) has improved since 2001 from 83.2 percent to 90-95 percent except in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Making teaching of math and other subjects efficient for the poor in developing countries is a great challenge, particularly in south Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. Many developing countries have explored new means of teaching math and other subjects. Mongolia changed its mathematics education, aiming to build a new set of priorities and practices, given the abandonment of earlier traditions. Similar to international trends of the time, South Africa in the 1990s extensively applied the constructivist learning philosophy which relied on exploration and discovery, with little emphasis on memorization, drill, In conformity with a belief that teachers could develop their own learning programs, there was virtual absence of a national or provincial syllabus or textbooks. Students were expected to develop their own methods for arithmetic operations, but most found it impossible to progress on their own from counting to actual calculating. This study integrates pertinent research from neuroscience and the psychology of mathematics to arrive at recommendations for curricular and efficient means of mathematics instruction particularly for developing countries and poor students at primary level. Specifically, the latest research in neuroscience, cognitive science, and discussions of national benchmarks for primary school mathematics learning, form the basis of our recommendations. These recommendations have a reasonable chance of working in the situational contexts of developing countries, with their traditions and resources.

Published
2008