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This paper explores the impact of climate change on major Australian sport stadia, and organizational responses. Specifically, we explore how climate change impacts the water resources used at such stadia and implications for the organizations managing this critical sport infrastructure. We adopted a qualitative case study method focusing on organizations that own and/or manage major sport stadia. Data were collected primarily through semi-structured interviews with participants representing 12 of Australia's 14 major sport stadiums. Data were analyzed using an interpretive process, and themes were developed relating to geo-physical, commercial and regulatory impacts, and adaptive responses. The analysis identified six climate change issues pertaining to water resources: (a) reduced rainfall, (b) increased evaporation from playing surfaces (c) water supply restrictions and other regulation, (d) higher water supply costs, (e) capital costs for water management infrastructure, and (f) negative public perceptions of high water consumption. The three organizational water management strategies were: (a) water harvesting, (b) water storage, and (c) water recycling. These strategies are indicative of adaptation responses to climate impacts. Given the long-term nature of climate change, and the proliferation of water-related public policy activity in recent years, stadium organizations will likely benefit from including climate change and adaptation in their strategic thinking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rainwater harvesting (RWH) systems can be used to produce drinking water in rural communities, particularly in developing countries that lack a clean drinking water supply. Most previous research has focused on the application of RWH systems for individual urban households. This paper develops a yield-after-spillage water balance model (WBM) which can calculate the reliability, annual drinking water production (ADWP) and benefit–cost ratio (BCR) of a community-scale RWH system for rural drinking water supply. We consider multiple scenarios regarding community aspects, including 150–1000 users, 70–4800 kL rainwater storage, 20–50 L/capita/day (LCD) drinking water usage levels, local rainfall regimes and economic parameters of Australia (developed country) and Vietnam (developing country). The WBM analysis shows a strong correlation between water demand and water supply with 90% system reliability, which allows both Australian and Vietnamese systems to achieve the similar capability of ADWP and economic values of the produced drinking water. However, the cost of the Vietnamese system is higher due to the requirement of larger rainwater storage due to larger household size and lower rainfall in the dry season, which reduces the BCR compared to the Australian systems. It is found that the RWH systems can be feasibly implemented at the water price of 0.01 AUD/L for all the Vietnamese scenarios and for some Australian scenarios with drinking water demand over 6 kL/day. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper documents the utility of the online tool “rainwater harvesting and demand simulation” forwarded by URL http://gettanked.org/ , and categorizes performance variability with respect to Köppen–Geiger climatic classifications of the Australian continent. This is a novel tool because it dynamically calculates the irrigation and evaporative cooling demands in addition to any particular per diem allocation of potable water. The analysis may be either from a finite storage tank of specified capacity, or drawn from water mains, but the present paper is focused on the design of secure off-grid rainwater harvesting systems (RWHS). The nominal consumption target of 155 L per diem per capita must be reduced by varying degrees depending on the locality. Higher demand can be met if sufficient catchment and capacity are provided, or if regular tanker deliveries are readily available. Alternatively, demand restrictions are tabulated as guidance to avoid running dry within the constraints of a nominal 10,000 L capacity storage with 100 m 2 catchment – defining the sustainable load per diem (SLPD) during a “worst case” epoch – this is the break-point for off-grid security. SLPD varies from 86 to 124 L/d among most temperate maritime climate stations, and between 35 and 42 L/d at most desert climate stations. The supporting on-line operating manual includes tabulations of demand for evaporative cooling and irrigation together with the sustainable yield of a rainwater harvest system at 128 locations throughout Australia. Dynamics of non-potable demands should be resolved before using the GetTanked design tool for any particular dwelling or workplace. Indoor and potable water demand must be disaggregated from irrigation, pool evaporation, and evaporative cooling in order to fully exploit the GetTanked tool. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water is a scarce resource in arid regions, and hence water harvesting is critically important in these regions for which many different means are adopted including groundwater and rainwater harvesting. This paper examines the feasibility of rainwater harvesting from roof catchments in arid regions of Australia. For this, ten representative locations in the arid regions of Australia are selected. Also, ten different sizes of rainwater tanks ranging from 5 kL to 50 kL and three different combinations of water uses are considered. A model is developed to simulate the performance of a rainwater harvesting (RWH) system. It is found that the reliability of a RWH system is highly dependent on mean annual rainfall at the location of interest. It is found that a 20 kL tank can provide a reliability of 61%–97% for toilet and laundry use depending on the location within the Australian arid regions. At the current water price, RWH system is not financially viable in the Australian arid regions. The methodology adopted in this paper can be adapted to other similar arid regions of the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Exponential growth of water demand and a decrease in usable freshwater due to various climate, environmental and anthropogenic events make rainwater harvesting a useful practice. According to Australian health regulations, drinking rainwater is low risk, if the roof catchment, collection system and storage are well maintained. The CSU Engineering building, which has received an architectural award for its sustainable design, produces its drinking water (3.7 L/person/day) within the premises. Rainwater is collected from the roof catchment, stored outside the building and treated on demand at a fully transparent water treatment plant installed at the entrance of the building. The water treatment facility is fully powered by solar panels installed on the roof. The treatment process consists of several operations, including aeration, sand filtration, GAC adsorption and UV disinfection. The performance of the CSU Engineering water treatment plant for the past 30 months is discussed in this paper. Primary and secondary water quality parameters of treated water were well within Australian drinking water quality standards and showed better results than municipal water available in the host town. The aeration unit improved secondary water quality standards (odor and taste) and the adsorption process was effective for elimination of metals. The result of this experiment indicated that this process could be a promising solution for providing safe drinking water in remote Australia, including sessional demands in rest areas and caravan parks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study uses a multi-criteria decision analysis approach based on geographic information system (GIS) to identify suitable sites for rainwater harvesting (RWH) structures (such as farm dam, check dam and contour bund) to meet irrigation demand in Greater Western Sydney region, New South Wales, Australia. Data on satellite image, soil, climate, and digital elevation model (DEM) were stored in GIS layers and merged to create a ranking system, which were then used to identify suitable RWH (rainwater harvesting) areas. The resulting thematic layers (such as rainfall, land use/land cover, soil type, slope, runoff depth, drainage density, stream order and distance from road) were combined into one overlay to produce map of RWH suitability. The results showed that 9% of the study region is 'very highly suitable' and 25% is 'highly suitable'. On the other hand, 36% of the area, distributed in the north-west, west and south-west of the study region, is 'moderately suitable'. While 21% of the region, distributed in east and south-east part of the region, has 'low suitability' and 9% is found as 'unsuitable area'. The findings of this research will contribute towards wider adoption of RWH in Greater Western Sydney region to meet irrigation demand. The developed methodology can be adapted to any other region/country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study presents a review of recent rainwater harvesting (RWH) research by a bibliometric analysis (based on performance analysis and science mapping method). Following the inclusion/exclusion criteria, a total of 3226 publications were selected for this bibliometric analysis. From the selected publications, the top journals were identified according to number of publications and number of citations, as well as the authors with the highest number of publications. It has been found that publication rate on RWH has been increasing steadily since 2005. Water (MDPI) journal has published the highest number of publications (128). Based on the literature considered in this review, the top five authors are found as Ghisi, E., Han, M., Rahman, A., Butler, D. and Imteaz, M.A. in that order. With respect to research collaborations, the top performing countries are USA–China, USA–Australia, USA–UK, Australia–UK and Australia–China. Although, the most dominant keywords are found to be 'rain', 'rainwater', 'water supply' and 'rainwater harvesting', since 2016, a higher emphasis has been attributed to 'floods', 'efficiency', 'climate change', 'performance assessment' and 'housing'. It is expected that RWH research will continue to rise in future following the current trends as it is regarded as a sustainable means of water cycle management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to climate change, freshwater supply will be limited at many locations around the globe. Rainwater harvesting (RWH) has emerged as an alternative and sustainable freshwater source. In this study, the impacts of climate change on water saving as well as the reliability of a RWH system are investigated using data from eight Australian capital cities. Both historical and projected rainfall data were incorporated into a daily water balance model to evaluate the performance of a RWH system in relation to its reliability, water savings and scarcity. Indoor (toilet and laundry), outdoor (irrigation) and combined (indoor plus outdoor) water demands were considered for a 5 m3 tank size. It has been found that in the future period, the water savings and reliability of a RWH system will reduce slightly across the selected cities. Different capital cities of Australia will experience different level of performance for a RWH system depending on their locations, water uses and seasons. The findings of this study will be useful to water authorities and policy makers to plan for a sustainable RWH system under changing climate conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to significant weather variabilities of rainfalls, potential water savings through rainwater tanks are expected to vary significantly. Moreover, within some large cities, significant spatial variations are reported. With the emerging impacts of climate change, existing weather and spatial variabilities of potential water savings are also likely to be changed, which are unknown to the end-users. This paper presents the impacts of climate change on current weather and spatial variabilities of potential water savings for Adelaide, a large city in Australia. Future daily rainfall data was collected from a data portal provided by the Australian government derived through a statistical downscaling modelling. Projected daily rainfall data was fed to an earlier developed daily water balance model (eTank) to calculate water savings for three future periods; 2030–2050, 2055–2075 and 2080–2100. Three weathers (dry, average and wet) in each period were considered along with two climate change scenarios (RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5) and two tank sizes (5 kL and 10 kL). It is found that varying outcomes without any general trend are expected depending on the projection scenario, period and weather condition. Contrary to the general perception, it is found that in several cases, the potential water savings are expected to increase compared to the current climate. Most of those expected increases in water savings are attributed to the projection scenario of RCP 4.5, in the near future and in dry years. In the far-future and with the projection scenario of RCP 8.5, most of the potential water savings are expected to decrease compared to the current climate. Regarding changes in spatial variability of water savings, it is found that the spatial variability will decrease in the near future, but will increase towards the far future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Freshwater is a critical input to estuaries but is under increasing demand to support upstream human activities. In this study, otolith biochronology was used to quantify the relationship between river discharge and juvenile growth rates of barramundi (Lates calcarifer) in three regions of the Gulf of Carpentaria in northern Australia. In all regions, river discharge had a strong positive effect on juvenile growth rates. Models were also developed which incorporated the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) and the Madden–Julian Oscillation (MJO). SOI values corresponding to La Niña events had strong positive consequences for juvenile barramundi growth rates in all regions, and the intensity of positive wet season MJO pulses had a strong positive effect on growth rates in the perennially flowing river, but not the intermittently flowing rivers. The consequences of three hypothetical water development scenarios were estimated for the perennial river. The model predicted a 12%, 8% and 1% reduction in annual barramundi growth rates under proposed scenarios for 18%, 8%, and 3% reduction in river discharge, respectively. Fish growth is a robust, quantitative metric that can be monitored pre and post water resource development to identify the least impactful development scenario and monitor its compliance and success through time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent anecdotal reports from seafood processors in eastern Australia have described an increased occurrence of post-mortem myoliquefaction ('jellymeat') in broadbill swordfish Xiphias gladius, and macroscopic cysts throughout the musculature of yellowfin tuna Thunnus albacares. A genus of parasitic cnidarians, Kudoa (Myxosporea, Multivalvulida), species of which are known to occur in economically important wild-caught fish species globally, can cause similar quality-deterioration issues. However, Kudoa sp. epizootiology within commercially harvested, high-value fish caught within Australia is poorly understood, despite the parasite's economic importance. To determine the causative agent responsible for the observed quality deterioration in swordfish and yellowfin tuna, muscle-tissue samples from seafood processors in Mooloolaba, Australia, collected from October 2019–February 2020, were examined for parasitic infection. Kudoid myxospores were identified from both hosts and were subquadrate in shape, with four equal-sized polar capsules. The SSU rDNA sequences from both fish shared > 99% identity to Kudoa species. Kudoa musculoliquefaciens was isolated from 87.1% of swordfish sampled, suggesting that it is a widespread parasite in swordfish from the southwest Pacific Ocean. This study provides the first molecular and morphological characterisation of Kudoa thunni in yellowfin tuna and K. musculoliquefaciens in swordfish harvested from the waters of eastern Australia, expanding the geographical distribution of K. thunni and K. musculoliquefaciens to include the Coral and Tasman Seas. We demonstrate that not all infected swordfish progress to jellymeat, show the usefulness of molecular tools for reliably identifying infection by Kudoa spp., and add to the overall knowledge of kudoid epizootiology in wild-caught fish. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is little recognition in policy of existing adaptive capacities and experiments with alternate water systems in the Global North. Households that are self-sufficient for water present a space in which alternative relationships between water, comfort and convenience manifest. This article presents insights from a survey completed by 209 households that are self-sufficient for water in the Eurobodalla Shire, in regional New South Wales, Australia. The survey sought to understand practices, experiences, and perceptions of people who take responsibility for managing the capture, storage, consumption, and disposal of water at home. We found that most respondents rely on household-collected rainwater for all domestic purposes. Most drink rainwater, and many drink rainwater untreated. Respondents identified challenges of self-sufficiency, including running out of water, and infrastructure maintenance and failure. Notwithstanding these challenges, most respondents indicated that they enjoy living in a water self-sufficient home and would do so again in future. Most respondents moved to their non-mains water home for reasons other than being in control of water; adapting to water self-sufficiency was therefore a necessity rather than a choice. The results of this survey are significant as the water sector looks to diversify sources of domestic water to better adapt to uncertain futures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rainwater harvesting (RWH) through household rainwater tanks has been increasingly recognized as a supplementary source of water in most urban cities. Previous studies indicated wide variations in annual water saving on residential water consumption. This study aimed to examine the factors causing these variations on the calculated savings of residential water use. The study involved the analysis of water consumption data collected by Yarra Valley Water (YVW) for 50 households with rainwater tanks and 50 without in Greater Melbourne, Australia. The results initially indicated an average annual saving of more than 4,600 L per year for an average household of 3.1 people; however, after considering seasonal variations, the estimated average potable water saving was more than 9,700 L per year. Further analysis revealed that properties without garden watering received more water saving than properties with garden watering (34,400–5,600 L per year, respectively). The results of this study are envisioned to lead to a better understanding of the effect of seasonal variations and local site conditions on the potential of RWH in integrated urban water management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rainwater harvesting (RWH) has become a popular water saving and conservation means across the globe. In many cities, a pre-determined rainwater tank size is generally selected without a detail water balance modelling at the location on interest. However, to achieve maximum benefit from a RWH system at a given location, it is desirable to design the system based on the site specific conditions (e.g. local rainfall and loss characteristics) and other relevant design parameters. There have been limited studies on regionalization of RWH system, which can account for the spatial variability in rainfall, loss and water demand characteristics over a given region to provide site-specific design of RWH system. This paper presents a RWH regionalization approach to develop a set of design curves, which assist in the selection of an adequate RWH system at a given location. We use rainfall data from 159 rain gauges across the Greater Sydney region in Australia to develop and test the proposed regionalization approach. It has been found that there is a significant variation in rainfall characteristics across Greater Sydney region and that a common tank size across this region does not present an adequate solution. It has been found that a 5 kL tank can achieve a reliability (i.e. percentage of days the RWH can meet the given demand) of 31–93% for four people depending on the location in the Greater Sydney region and the types of water use. The developed regional design curves could result in increased water savings across Greater Sydney. The proposed regionalization approach can be adapted to other cities across Australia and the world which present a high rainfall gradient. • Water savings by rainwater harvesting at 159 locations in Sydney are evaluated. • Reliability of a rainwater tank is moderately correlated with mean annual rainfall. • A set of design curves is developed for Sydney to enhance rainwater harvesting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wetlands are one of the most threatened ecosystems on earth. Globally, there is growing demand to develop infrastructure to harvest water resources to support agriculture, threatening the ecological integrity of associated wetland ecosystems. We investigated the potential ecological impacts on floodplain wetland connectivity in northern Australia in response to changes in flow regime due to dam construction and climate change. Results for this study indicate that a drier climate and/or dam construction in catchments have the potential to reduce the effective size of the floodplain and reduce wetland connectivity. A drier climate will reduce rainfall and subsequent catchment run‐off, resulting in a decrease in the magnitude of riverine flows. In contrast, dams in the upper catchment will reduce the magnitude of flows downstream. The reduction in flows under both dam development and a drier climate will result in reduced extent and duration of floodplain inundation and decreased wetland connectivity. As a result, we anticipate that this loss of connectivity will reduce the capacity for nutrients, carbon and primary production to be flushed into the river channel, as well as reduce the ability for biota such as fish and turtles to move between in‐channel and off‐channel habitats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]