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Background: Holocaust memory and learning processes have become increasingly mediatised as a result of rapid technological advances. There is, however, little information available regarding how people learn about this topic informally through social media. Objectives: This paper explores how adult learners develop their learning ecologies by using social media to learn about the Holocaust informally. Methods: The study uses a learning ecology perspective to analyse the interests, expectations and learning process of a group of adult learners (N = 276). An online survey tool was developed to collect information on the interests, expectations, and benefits of learning about Holocaust-related topics among online users of four Italian Holocaust museums' social media profiles (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and YouTube). Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to summarise the characteristics of the sample and to answer the research questions. Results and Conclusions: The results show that most of the respondents are mostly women, with an average age of 50 and a higher level of education. In terms of interest and expectations, they are particularly interested in issues related to the intertwining of transnational and national memory. They also express a sense of civic responsibility with regard to the legacy of the Holocaust. Finally, components of the learning process show proactive behaviour and a preference for individual learning, while interaction with peers is considered less important. Takeaways: There is an urgent need to understand how learners' preferences influence the development of learning ecologies and the types of content they are most likely to be exposed to as a result. It is also important for social media content providers to understand that learners are looking for quality resources and trustworthy content to further their education.

Background: Many researchers have explored the impact of various technologies in museums on learning effects. Whether the application of technology in informal museum learning is effective, is the current issue that scholars pay more attention to. Objectives: This study will find the evidence to determine the effects of technology use on museum learning outcomes, and identify the future research trends in the field of technology application in museum learning. Methods: This study used a meta-analysis method to statistically analyse the experimental and quasi-experimental research in this field, and explored the effect sizes of technology application on the learning effect of museums. And the co-citation network analysis method was used to analyse the distribution of academic groups and research institutions in this field and the changes in research hotspots. Results and Conclusions: The results show that technologies significantly enhance noncognitive learning. Significant differences exist in the effects of the moderating variables on the influence of technology on the learning outcomes of museum learning. The scholars engaged in this research field come from various countries or regions and institutions. The research hotspots of and extended research on technically supported museum learning have changed continually in the past decade. Major Takeaways: This study answers the question of "whether, how, and to what extent does the application of technology affect the learning effect of museums". According to the research conclusions, certain suggestions are proposed in this paper from the perspectives of researchers and museum institutions for the effective application of museum technology.

Because the educational technology research literature is so broad, it is difficult for researchers to acquire an accurate sense of the issues and trends across the entire field. There has not been any recent effort to synthesize or critically analyse the systematic reviews in the area of educational technology. This study analysed 73 systematic literature reviews, including meta‐analyses, focused on the evaluation of technology in educational contexts, in order to holistically understand the impact of learning technology use across different aspects of evaluation. Among these reviews, the most common theme examined was learning outcomes (89%), followed by affective elements (45%), behaviours (25%), technological elements (21%) and teaching/pedagogical aspects (19%). Most of the reviews found that the use of technology improved learning outcomes and affective perceptions. Approaches involving interaction, gamification, constructivism, student‐centred learning and feedback were most effective. The analysis highlighted the need for more reviews focusing on multiple aspects of learning technology evaluation, on school level education and on the use of technology in naturalistic (non‐interventional) settings. Critical reflections are also cast on the methods used to conduct systematic reviews in the educational technology field. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic Systematic literature reviews are often used to understand trends in specific areas of educational technology research and evaluation.There has not been any recent effort to synthesis or critically analyse the reviews in areas of educational technology research. What this paper adds A critical analysis of 73 systematic reviews to understand trends in learning technology evaluation.Technology use consistently improves outcomes across reviews of different learning domains, technologies, and levels.Approaches involving interaction, gamification, constructivism, student‐centred learning and feedback were most effective.The majority of systematic reviews did not evaluate the quality of the primary papers which they examined. Implications of study findings for practitioners Educators should preference approaches that are constructivist, social, gamified, student‐centred and involving feedback.Educators should strive to evaluate the quality of the papers they review as well as multiple aspects of learning.The more detailed findings of this paper will enable educators to adopt a more nuanced approach to their practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Behavioural intention (BI) has been predicted using other variables by adopting the technology acceptance model (TAM). However, few studies have examined whether BI can predict learning performance. Objectives: The present study used an extended TAM to investigate whether students' BI is a predictor of their listening learning performance (LLP) through vocabulary learning performance (VLP) in the context of mobile vocabulary‐assisted listening learning by using two mobile learning tools. Methods: A total of 129 college students with a pre‐intermediate level of English were recruited as participants, and a 10‐week mobile vocabulary‐assisted, listening‐learning course was conducted in 2022. In each task of this course, the students had to learn target words from a listening passage on Quizlet and then engage in listening activities on Randall's ESL Cyber Listening Lab. Quantitative responses obtained through an online questionnaire were analysed through partial‐least‐squares structural equation modelling. Results: The analysis results indicated that BI significantly predicted LLP through VLP. Perceived ease of use (PEU) and perceived usefulness (PU) were significant antecedents of BI. However, PEU did not significantly predict PU because of the difficulty of navigating between the two technological tools used in this study. The extended model demonstrated its effectiveness in explaining listening learning performance, as evidenced by an explained variance (R2) of 69%. Conclusion: The extended model validates the influence of BI on learning performance and it can also draw teachers' focus toward the significance of enhancing students' BI to improve their listening learning performance. Pedagogical implications based on the results are provided in this paper. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic?: TAM was used to study learners' acceptance of mobile‐assisted language learning.TAM incorporates latent variables to explore mobile‐assisted language learning.Investigating factors influencing BI is a primary research focus in extended TAM literature.Mobile tools could improve listening learning and vocabulary retention. What this paper adds to that: Learning performance was considered as a dependent variable in an extended TAM.BI might predict students' learning performance in vocabulary and listening in an extended TAM.Teachers used two mobile tools to design mobile vocabulary‐assisted listening tasks.Pre‐learning the target words facilitate students' listening learning performance. Implications for practice and/or policy: We show the importance of BI on predicting listening learning performance.The impact of BI on other factors became another focus of TAM research.Results highlight pre‐learning target words' importance for better listening performance.Existing mobile tools improve listening performance, avoiding new system development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Previous studies have shown that dynamic illustrations, as compared to their static counterparts, lead to higher achievement levels, especially for hand‐based procedures. Other researchers have investigated how the presence of seductive details (i.e., appealing but irrelevant adjunct displays) influences students' interest positively but their learning negatively. Objectives: The purpose of the two present studies was to investigate the effects of animated versus static presentations, combined with the presence of seductive details, on student performance on a paper‐folding task (i.e., origami) in a naturalistic school environment. Methods: Fifty‐five children (5–6 years old) participated in the first study and were randomly assigned to one of four groups. The second study was conducted with older children (72 s or third graders) and a more complex origami task. Results and Conclusions: In the first study, results demonstrated negative effects of seductive details on children's performance and time on task, but no effects of presentation format. In the second study, no negative effects of seductive details on student achievement were found, but animated illustrations significantly improved children's performance and reduced time on task. However, seductive details tended to impair learning more greatly given the presence of static, as compared to animated, presentations. Task difficulties and pupils' ability to inhibit irrelevant information may explain these results. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Seductive details negatively influence young children's performance.Animated illustrations have been shown to improve students' learning for dynamic procedure. What this paper adds: This is the first study investigating the influence of animated vs. static illustrations combined with seductive details on children's learning performance.Animated illustrations improve children's performance for a challenging dynamic procedure.Seductive details tended to impair more learning from static than from animated presentations.Results are discussed in relation to the task's difficulty as well as students' ability to inhibit irrelevant information. Implications for practitioners: Animated illustrations should be used when presenting dynamic procedures.Instructors should use seductive details cautiously in pedagogical documents particularly when the task is difficult. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: There are only few guidelines on how instructional videos should be designed to optimize learning. Recently, the effects of social cues on attention allocation and learning in instructional videos have been investigated. Due to inconsistent results, it has been suggested that the visual complexity of a video influences the effect of social cues on learning. Objectives: Therefore, this study compared the effects of social cues (i.e., gaze & gesture) in low and high visual complexity videos on attention, perceived cognitive load, and learning outcomes. Methods: Participants (N = 71) were allocated to a social cue or no social cue condition and watched both a low and a high visual complexity video. After each video, participants completed a knowledge test. Results and Conclusions: Results showed that participants looked faster at referenced information and had higher learning outcomes in the low visual complexity condition. Social cues did not affect any of the dependent variables, except when including prior knowledge in the analysis: In this exploratory analysis, the inclusion of gaze and gesture cues in the videos did lead to better learning outcomes. Takeaways: Our results show that the visual complexity of instructional videos and prior knowledge are important to take into account in future research on attention and learning from instructional videos. Lay Description: What is already known about the topic: Instructional videos are widely used in education.Learners need to timely attend to relevant content to learn successfully.Learners' attention might be guided towards relevant content with social cues (gaze and gesture of a presenter or instructor) but findings regarding learning outcomes are inconclusive. What does this paper add: This paper is the first to examine the role of the visual complexity of an instructional video in the interplay between social cues (gaze and gesture), learners' attention allocation, and learning outcomes. Implications for practice: The results show that visual complexity influences the learners' attention allocation and learning outcomes.Social cues (i.e., gaze & gesture) improved learning outcomes when controlling for learners' prior knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Digital‐first assessments leverage the affordances of technology in all elements of the assessment process: from design and development to score reporting and evaluation to create test taker‐centric assessments. Objectives: The goal of this paper is to describe the engineering, machine learning, and psychometric processes and technologies of a test security framework (part of a larger ecosystem; Burstein et al., 2021) that can be used to create systems that protect the integrity of test scores. Methods: We use the Duolingo English Test to exemplify the processes and technologies that are presented. This includes methods for actively detecting and deterring malicious behaviour (e.g., a custom desktop app). It also includes methods for passively detecting and deterring malicious behaviour (e.g., a large item bank created through automatic generation methods). We describe the certification process that each test administration undergoes, which includes both automated and human review. Additionally, we describe our quality assurance dashboard which leverages psychometric data mining techniques to monitor test quality and inform decisions about item pool maintenance. Results and Conclusions: As assessment developers transition to online delivery and to a design approach that places the test taker at the centre, it becomes increasingly important to take advantage of the tools and methodological advances in different fields (e.g., engineering, machine learning, psychometrics). These tools and methods are essential to maintaining the security of assessments so that the score reliability is sustained and the interpretations and uses of test scores remain valid. Lay Description: What is known about this topic?: As more and more testing programmes transition to test taker‐centric administrations, effective measures to prevent cheating and protect content are critical to ensure the validity and integrity of scores.Two of the most common forms of cheating in online testing are (a) having someone other than the person who has registered take the test, and (b) stealing content and providing it to others to assist them in achieving a higher score. What does this paper add?: In designing a test taker‐centric digital‐first assessment, a test security framework must inform decisions from end‐to‐end (i.e., registration, onboarding, communications regarding test taker behaviours, test preparation and practice, test administration, and post‐administrative activities including scoring).Security is safeguarded through active and passive design methods; active methods include having test takers attest that they will follow the rules governing testing and informing them that they will be videoed during testing; passive methods include a computer adaptive design that limits item exposure and test overlap rates, development of a large item pool using automated item generation, and applying artificial intelligence to review test administration videos to flag unauthorized behaviours for human review. Implications: With more educational and assessment programmes transitioning to online digital models, the paper presents a comprehensive review of security issues and identifies an integrated approach for preventing cheating and other unauthorized behaviours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Study: The research discusses the need for a paradigm shift in engineering education current practices to accommodate the digital native students. The paper emphasizes the importance of integrating disruptive technologies, namely Virtual Reality (VR) through Head Mounted Displays VR (HMD VR) and Desktop Based VR (DB VR) and comparing it with the traditional teaching methods. The research focuses on second‐year undergraduate students enrolled in a concrete structures course. Objectives: The objective of the study is to analyse the impact of DB VR and HMD VR on students' motivation, performance and workload in comparison with traditional 2D drawings. The study also aims to investigate how simulation sickness and system usability could impact students' motivation and performance when interpreting concrete structures. Methods: The study divided second‐year civil engineering students into three groups, 2D, DB VR and HMD VR. The performance and motivation levels of students were assessed based on the number of mistakes identified and an intrinsic motivation survey. Furthermore, data on system usability and simulation sickness were collected. Spearman rank correlation was conducted to analyse the relationships between the variables tested. Results: The results have shown that students' motivation and performance were much higher when using VR in general and HMD VR specifically, students' efficiency and accuracy were also observed. On the other hand, usability was found to be moderately correlated with motivation, with students rating HMD VR as the most usable approach. A moderate inverse correlation was observed between simulation sickness and motivation, indicating that higher simulation sickness led to lower motivation levels. Conclusion: The study concludes that integrating VR in general, DB VR, or HMD VR into a concrete structures course for undergraduate students can significantly improve students' performance and motivation. Furthermore, enhancing usability of any of the methods used can also improve the performance and motivation. On the other hand, simulation sickness inversely affects motivation and performance, therefore, VR developers and educators should not neglect it. Lay Description: What is already known about the topic: Traditional teaching methods in engineering education require improvement.Integrating digital technologies into engineering education enhances performance.Digital technologies can potentially enhance motivation. What this paper adds: Compares traditional teaching methods for concrete structures interpretation with virtual reality.Establishes correlations between motivation, performance and usabilityIntroduces how desktop‐based VR and head‐mounted display VR can produce varying results. Implications for practice and/or policy: Decision‐makers can use the information to integrate updated pedagogy into engineering curricula.Allows for further exploration of different digital technologies that can be used for concrete structure interpretation.Allows instructors to introduce virtual reality in their courses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: As one of the mainstream forms of programming education, educational robotics (ER) have been a crucial way to develop K‐12 students' programming ability. Objectives: The purpose of this study is to clarify the content of programming ability, to verify the effectiveness of ER as a teaching method to improve students' programming abilities and the conditions for more effective instructional design. Methods: The method of meta‐analysis was adopted to conduct this study. 4180 K‐12 students from 36 studies with a total of 85 effect sizes were captured. Based on the contents of included literature, an ER programming ability model was put forward, which was composed of essential ability and generative ability. The meta‐analysis of essential ability (N = 22) and generative ability (N = 64) was carried out respectively. Results and conclusion: The results showed that ER activity has a positive effect on the essential ability (Hedges' g = 0.539 CI [0.327, 0.752], p < 0.001) and generative ability (Hedges' g = 0.535 CI [0.426, 0.643], p < 0.001). Additionally, the results of moderator analysis showed that utilizing ER to solve mathematics problems is able to more effectively develop students' essential ability, while the STEM interdisciplinary ER instruction had the largest effect on generative ability. Simultaneously, the individual programming form is conducive to students' essential ability, while the generative ability is significantly affected by the cooperative programming form. No matter for the evaluation of essential ability or generative ability, ER had the greatest effect on kindergarten children' programming ability. Moreover, the intervention duration ranging from 1 to 5 weeks, the samples size less than 50 and the choice of measurement scale can effectively improve students' programming ability. Implications: This research enriched the theoretical basis of programming ability, and provided reference and guidance for K‐12 programming teaching practitioners and researchers in ER teaching design and practise. Lay Description: What is (not) known about the subject matter?: Educational robotics (ER) is one of the mainstream form of K‐12 programming education.K‐12 students develop various abilities by coding ER.Different instruction conditions in ER education may affect the teaching effect. What is the contribution of this paper?: This study sorted out the specific content of programming ability in ER activities, and classified programming ability into essential ability and generative ability.This study respectively validated the effectiveness of ER activity on improving essential ability and generative ability of K‐12 students.This study considered discipline integration, cooperation degree, grade level, intervention duration, sample size and assessment tools as moderator variables, and analyzed their effects sizes on ER developing programming ability. What are the implications for practitioners?: This paper clarified the specific content of programming ability in K‐12 ER education, and enriched the theoretical basis of programming ability.It provided evidence for the effectiveness of K‐12 ER education.This study provided an reference and guidance for ER instructional design for K‐12 programming teachers and researchers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Background: Writing is an important and complex skill, which could be enhanced by teaching students effective writing strategies such as outlining. Electronic outlining ‐ integrated feature in Microsoft® Word – has been shown to enhance students' writing performance. However, little is known about the optimal didactic approach for electronic outlining. Objective: This study examined the effects of learning to use electronic outlining either via observational learning or via learning‐by‐doing on students' argumentative writing performance. Methods: Students (N = 129, 10th‐grade) were assigned with their complete class to one of three conditions: a control (traditional pen and paper outlines via learning‐by‐doing), outline (electronic outlines via learning‐by‐doing) or observation (electronic outlines via observational learning) condition. Students followed an argumentative writing lesson‐series that differed across conditions in terms of planning strategies and didactic approaches used. To examine the influence of the different conditions on students' writing, argumentative texts were used as pre‐ and post‐tests, and the quality was evaluated with an analytic assessment protocol. In addition, data regarding students' perceived mental effort and the organisation of the writing process were collected. Finally, students' attitudes towards electronic outlining were assessed. Results and Conclusion: Although the overall text structure had improved after the lesson series, no significant differences were found between conditions. Electronic outlining increased the total amount of time dedicated to the texts as well as the revision ratio. Students in the observation condition showed a higher pause ratio and a lower fluency on the post‐test as compared to students who learned by doing (both control and outline conditions). With regard to perceived mental effort, students in the outline and control conditions perceived significant decreases over tasks, as opposed to those in the observation condition. In conclusion, the self‐reports indicate that students in the outline condition appropriated electronic outlining significantly better than those in the observation condition, suggesting that practice enhanced students' appropriation of electronic outlining. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Planning as a writing strategy helps students organise their writing and reduce mental effort.Electronic outlining is an effective and efficient tool to support a planning strategy.Observational learning is an effective didactic approach in writing education. What this paper adds: Traditional planning and electronic outlining via either observational learning or learning‐by‐doing affect writing products equally.Tool appropriation is greater for students who learned‐by‐doing. Implications for practice: Importance of elaborated and explicit (strategy) instruction.Advantage of video‐based modelling for teacher efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Investigating emotion sequence patterns in the posts of discussion forums in massive open online courses (MOOCs) holds a vital role in shaping online interactions and impacting learning achievement. While the majority of research focuses on the relationship between emotions and interactions in MOOC forum discussions, research on identifying the crucial difference in emotion sequence patterns among different interaction groups remains in its infancy. Objectives: This research utilizes deep learning and sequential pattern mining to investigate whether there are differences in emotion sequence patterns across different groups of learners who exhibit various types of interactions in online discussion forums. Methods: Data from a comprehensive array of sources, including log files, discussion texts and scores from 498 learners in online discussion forums, were collected for this study. The agglomerative hierarchical algorithm is used to classify learners into groups with different levels of interactions. Additionally, we implement and evaluate multiple deep learning models for detecting different emotions from online discussions. Relevant emotion sequence patterns were identified using sequence pattern analysis and the identified emotion sequence patterns were compared across different groups with different levels of interactions. Results and Conclusions: Using an agglomerative hierarchical algorithm, we classified learners into three distinct groups characterized by different levels of interactions: high, average and low level. Leveraging the bi‐directional long short‐term memory model for emotion detection yielded the highest predictive performance, with an impressive F‐measure of 94.01%, a recall rate of 93.83% and an accuracy score of 95.01%. The results also revealed that learners in the low‐level interaction group experienced more emotion transition from boredom to frustration than the other two groups. Therefore, the aggregation of students into groups and the utilization of their MOOC log data offer educators the capability to provide adaptive emotional feedback, customize assessments and offer more personalized attention as needed. Lay Description: What is currently known about the subject matter: Emotions are dynamic over time when learners experience cognitive disequilibrium/equilibrium.Online interactions are critical components, which influence learners' emotional state, cognitive processes and learning achievement.It is not clear what are differences in emotion sequence patterns across the groups with different interaction types. What the paper adds: An agglomerative hierarchical algorithm was implemented to cluster learners into three groups by analysing behavioural data.We explore possibilities for automated classification of emotions using deep learning approaches.Learners in the low‐level interaction group experienced more emotion transition from boredom to frustration. Implications for practitioners: A considerable amount of effort should be expended to identify and respond to learners who experience boredom and frustration emotions.Designing interventions or scaffolding to facilitate learners' interaction and promote favourable emotions.Educators could provide more personalized support based on learners' online interaction cluster. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Science teachers' understanding of the roles of computing practices in science frame how they enact scientific computational practices in their teaching and how their students perceive the relationship between computational practices and scientific endeavours. Objectives: This critical, integrative review synthesizes teacher learning literature about the role of computational literacy and computing practices in K‐12 science teaching. Methods: We examined 54 peer‐reviewed articles and analysed the ways the researchers and teacher participants describe the affordances of integrating computational thinking (CT) and other computational practices in science. We characterize how CT and computational practices are framed in relation to scientific learning goals. We identify six primary affordances for integrating computational practices with science that are conveyed to teachers and by teachers, as represented in these studies of teacher learning. Results and Conclusions: These six perspectives include (1) learning computer science principles, (2) developing CT dispositions, (3) engagement and inclusion in science, (4) taking ownership of science, (5) supporting learning science content, and (6) participating in computational practice as a form of scientific epistemic practice. Our analysis indicates that computational thinking and computational practices are often integrated in science in order to teach something about computing (e.g., Perspective 1), rather than to support learners' scientific work. Only the 29 articles coded for the sixth perspective—that is, in service of epistemic aims in science—demonstrate commitment to students' uses of computational ideas and practices as epistemic tools to participate in the sensemaking work of science. Takeaways: Comparison of Perspectives 5 and 6 illustrates the nuance between computational practices in science that reify something students have already "figured out," rather than those that serve epistemic goals. Perspective 6 encapsulates the deep synergy among (1) the reflexive nature of computing with scientific ideas and (2) computing as a central practice in science and engineering. We contend that a more focused message of computational practices in service of scientific sensemaking goals is necessary if we expect teachers to enact CT and related computational practices in their classrooms. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic?: Science teachers' understanding of the roles of computing practices in science frame how they enact scientific computational practices in their teaching. What this paper adds?: We analysed 54 peer‐reviewed articles regarding teacher learning about the role of computational literacy and computing practices in K‐12 science teaching.We characterized the ways the researchers and teacher participants describe the affordances of integrating computational thinking (CT) and other computational practices in science.We present six primary affordances for integrating computational practices with science that are conveyed to teachers and by teachers, as represented in these studies of teacher learning. These six perspectives include (1) learning computer science principles, (2) developing CT dispositions, (3) engagement and inclusion in science, (4) taking ownership of science, (5) supporting learning science content, and (6) computational practices in service of epistemic aims in science. Implications for practice and/or policy: We find that computational thinking and computational practices are often integrated in science in order to teach introductory computer science principles, but not to support the original science learning aims.Only the 29 of 54 articles demonstrate commitment to students' uses of computational ideas and practices as epistemic tools to participate in the sensemaking work of science.We contend that a more focused message of computational practices in service of scientific sensemaking goals is necessary if we expect teachers to enact CT and related computational practices in their classrooms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Virtual reality (VR) offers significant potential for hands‐on learning environments by providing immersive and visually stimulating experiences. Interacting with such environments can bring numerous benefits to learning, including enhanced engagement, knowledge construction, and higher‐order thinking. However, many current VR studies in hands‐on learning tend to utilise one‐way learning materials, limiting participants' ability to interact with and reflect on their actions and learning experiences. Moreover, these studies often neglect to assess learners' capacity to transfer their skills from VR learning to real‐world scenarios. Therefore, this study aims to investigate participants' engagement, learning outcomes, higher‐order thinking, and their ability to apply acquired skills in real‐world contexts. Method and Objective: Participants were immersed in a hands‐on learning environment in VR, where they received feedback and engaged in reflection during the learning process. This study recruited 68 university students to participate in the experiment, employing a quasi‐experimental design. Participants experienced learning units both with and without reflection on the feedback. The theme of these learning units was related to embedded systems, encompassing topics such as the assembly of embedded components and Python programming. The investigation aimed to assess whether reflection in VR could enhance cognitive levels, engagement, real‐world hands‐on tasks abilities, and higher‐order thinking. Results: The research results indicate that in the VR hands‐on learning environment, participants engage in reflection through the provided feedback, effectively enhancing their engagement, cognitive levels, and hands‐on task abilities. Simultaneously, it also successfully assists participants in developing problem‐solving skills and critical thinking in higher‐order thinking. Conclusions: Participants actively engaged in reflection on their own learning tasks and actions within the hands‐on learning environment, enabling them to develop a deeper understanding of the learning material and enhance their real‐world hands‐on tasks abilities, we encourage the integration of reflection strategies in VR learning environments for hands‐on learning, as they can yield positive benefits for learners. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Virtual reality learning environments can enhance students' cognitive levels.Higher‐order thinking has a significant impact on hands‐on learning.Reflection has an important influence on the cognitive process. What this paper adds: Providing reflection through feedback in a virtual reality environment increases learning engagement and promotes higher‐order thinking.Reflection in virtual reality enhances cognitive levels and practical abilities. Implications for practice and/or policy: We demonstrated the effectiveness of providing reflection through feedback in a VR hands‐on learning environment.Learners, through reflection in VR, enhance higher‐order thinking, engagement, cognitive levels, and practical abilities. What are the 1 or 2 major takeaways from the study: Providing reflection in VR learning environments used for training or hands‐on learning can effectively promote cognitive levels, engagement, higher‐order thinking abilities, and practical skills.Through VR reflection, we reveal the potential of cultivating higher‐order thinking through VR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Study Objectives Methods Results Conclusions Peer feedback has been used as an effective instructional strategy to enhance students' learning in higher education.This paper reports on the findings of an explorative study that aimed to increase our understanding of the nature and role of peer feedback in the students' learning process in a computer‐supported collaborative learning (CSCL) setting. Exploring what types of feedback are used, and how they relate to each other and are related to academic performance has important implications for students and teachers.This study was conducted in the higher education setting. It used a dataset consisting of student peer feedback messages (N = 2444) and grades from 231 students who participated in a large engineering course. Using qualitative methods, peer feedback was coded inductively. Epistemic network analysis (ENA) was used to analyse the relation between peer feedback types and performance.Based on the five types of peer feedback (i.e., ‘management’, ‘cognition’ ‘affect’, ‘interpersonal factors’ and ‘suggestions for improvements’), the results of the ENA showed that student feedback categories ‘management’, ‘cognition’ and ‘affect’ were positively related to student performance at the formative assessment phase.The findings and the ENA visualizations also show that ‘suggestions for improvement’ and ‘interpersonal factors’ were not a significant part of student learning in peer assessment and feedback in the studied context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article introduces the articles in the June 2005 of the "Journal of Computer Assisted Learning," about wireless and mobile technologies in education. The issue features revised and elaborated versions of best papers presented at the two international conferences on mobile learning. The Second IEEE International Workshop in Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education was held at the National Central University in Chungli, Taiwan, in March 2004 with the theme of mobile support for learning communities. The Third European Conference on Mobile Learning was at Lake Bracciano, Italy, in July 2004, with the theme of learning anytime, everywhere. The special issue reveals the productive interaction between new ecologies of learning and wireless and mobile technology. Three of the papers focus on extending learning outside the classroom.

Background: In learning mechanics, students often believe that "force is exerted on moving objects." As this misconception called "motion implies a force" (MIF) is difficult to correct, various teaching methods have been proposed, such as showing refutational/explanatory text (Palmer & Flanagan, 1997; Takagaki, 2004), promoting students' conceptual development (Dekkers & Thijs, 1998) and epistemology‐focused instruction (Elby, 2001). Objectives: The purpose of this research is to empirically examine the effectiveness of an alternative method we have proposed for helping students overcome MIF misconceptions. The method is called the "Error‐based simulation (EBS)" that creates a counterexample to students' misconceptions by simulating erroneous phenomena based on students' incorrect ideas. Methods: We conducted a two‐year experimental implementation of EBS in mechanics classes at a technical college, and investigated the results. Students worked on the pre‐test, the exercise with EBS, the post‐test, and the delayed post‐test. Results and Conclusions: In both years, MIF‐answers (wrong answers due to MIF) in the learning task (problems learned with EBS) significantly decreased from the pre‐test to the post‐test and the delayed post‐test. The decrease in other erroneous answers was not significant. EBS was effective mainly in correcting MIF‐answers, and the effect was maintained over the long term. In the transfer task (new problems), the ratio of MIF‐answers to all erroneous answers in both the post‐test and delayed post‐test was much lower than that on the learning task in the pre‐test. These results suggest that learning with EBS not only corrected MIF‐answers but also promoted the correction of MIF misconceptions. A comparison between our results and those of other methods for correcting MIF misconceptions revealed that the effect of EBS was equal to or greater than that of other methods mentioned above. Lay Description: What is currently known about the subject matter: In learning mechanics, students often believe "continuing force is exerted on moving objects."This misconception called "motion implies a force" (MIF) is difficult to correct.Various teaching methods have been proposed and practiced.However, MIF misconceptions do not completely disappear yet. What our paper adds to this: We propose an alternative method for correcting MIF misconceptions called EBS.EBS provides a counterexample to students' misconceptions by simulation.EBS helps students discover the correct concept by themselves.We report the results of a two‐year experimental use of EBS at a technical college. The implications of study findings for practitioners: Our experience shows EBS is useful in correcting MIF misconceptions.The effectiveness of EBS is at least equal to or greater than other methods.Learning with EBS probably promotes the correction of errors at a conceptual levelWe believe our results have a certain degree of generality and usefulness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: How to improve learning with online multimedia lessons has attracted widespread concern. Prior studies have attempted to help students learn by breaking a video lesson into several segments. However, there has been a debate about whether learners can use pause time effectively and whether prompting them to engage in different types of generative learning activities during pauses can better facilitate learning. Objectives: This study aimed to explore how to maximize learning by asking students to engage in generative processing activities during pauses in segmented narrated video lessons. Methods: Three experiments explored the effectiveness of segmenting, and whether adding summaries between segments can improve learning performance. In Experiment 1, participants were asked to view a segmented video or a continuous video. In Experiment 2, we examined whether adding summarizing activities during pauses can improve the effects of segmenting. In Experiment 3, we further investigated the effects of adding different types of summarizing activities during pauses. Results and Conclusions: In Experiment 1, segmenting improved performance on retention tests, but not on transfer tests. In Experiment 2, the effects of segmenting on the retention and transfer tests were enhanced when learners were asked to produce written summaries during the pauses. In Experiment 3, asking participants to imagine or write summaries during the pauses in segmented lessons improved retention and transfer test performance, but providing a summary only helped on retention. Takeaways: Adding generative learning activities (i.e., summarizing) during pauses prompted learners to learn the material more deeply. Results are consistent with the ICAP framework and the cognitive theory of multimedia learning. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Video lessons are being widely used in online learning environments.Previous studies explored the effectiveness of video lessons by adding a pause between segments of an animation.Students' generating learning activities (e.g., summarizing) could affect students' learning.Previous studies on summarizing have mostly focused on science texts. What this paper adds: The study investigated the effects of segmenting (pause vs. continuous) and summarizing (i.e., student‐generated written summaries, student‐generated imagined summaries, and instructor‐provided summaries) in an instructional animation.The results showed the benefits of adding generating learning activity (i.e., summarizing) between segments of an instructional animation.Student‐generated imagined summaries were similar in effectiveness to student generated written summaries during pauses in a segmented multimedia lesson.Instructor‐provided summaries during pauses were most likely to improve retention rather than transfer performance. The implications of study findings for practitioners: It would be better for instructional designers to provide pauses and encourage students to engage in appropriate cognitive processing during pauses to improve learning performance in video lectures.Instructional designers should adopt appropriate strategies according to different teaching objectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Screen‐sharing technologies enable applications such as screen mirroring, video streaming and instant messaging across multiple device screens. Despite their increasing use in many contemporary classrooms, there is a paucity of research directly examining pedagogical benefits and issues of these technologies. Objectives: This study investigated the influence of screen‐sharing technologies on teachers' practices, highlighting pedagogical benefits and issues encountered. Methods: The paper drew on a sample of 321 K‐12 teachers and utilised principal components analysis, descriptive statistics and inductive coding. Results and Conclusions: Teachers reported greater mobility, increased ease of content sharing and deeper learner cognition as attributes of improved learning and teaching with the technologies. However, a minority highlighted technical issues such as network and hardware problems affecting their confidence. Despite increased mobility as an affordance, teachers' perceptions about mobility largely appeared to be predicated on assumptions that the technologies were intended for didactic instruction. Takeaways: The study contributes to a more nuanced understanding of screen‐sharing affordances while underscoring learner‐led screensharing as a focus for future research and practice. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Screen‐sharing technologies are becoming commonplace in many contemporary educational settings.The technologies represent integrated systems that enable functions such as mirroring, video streaming, online polls, real‐time editing, screen‐capturing and learner analytics.Screen‐sharing is indirectly examined in several studies with findings indicating improvements in group awareness, emotional engagement, learner confidence to share ideas and teachers' visualization of concepts.Existing findings are largely anecdotal and there are very few studies that have focused directly on screen‐sharing affordances. What this paper adds: An empirical study directly examining teachers' first‐hand perspectives of using screen‐sharing technologies.Benefits relate to greater task focus, deeper thinking, improvements to teaching practice and ease of sharing content.A minority of teachers experienced issues such as technical problems, inappropriate sharing and distraction.Mobility was recognized as a key affordance though remained underutilized by many teachers. Implications for practice and/or policy: Professional learning accompanying the use of screen‐sharing technologies can support teachers to take advantage of all features of screen sharing such as enhanced teacher mobility.Institutions need to provide requisite technical and professional support for teachers to effectively and reliably leverage screen‐sharing in the classroom.There is a need to explore teacher's and learner's screen‐sharing uses in situ to more fully understand issues and possibilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Immersive virtual reality (IVR) is a new technology that could motivate learners, but also could contain distracting elements that increase cognitive demands on learners. In contrast, learning with conventional media, such as a narrated slideshow could be less motivating, but also less distracting. Objectives: This experiment investigates: (1) in what situations executive function and working memory capacity play a role in learning in IVR and a slideshow lesson and (2) whether people learn science content better with IVR or with a narrated slideshow lesson. Method: Participants watched a lesson on ocean acidification either using a head‐mounted display IVR device or a pre‐recorded narrated slideshow lesson. A week later, they took a test on this material and completed tasks to assess executive function and working memory capacity. Results and Conclusion: On a post‐test, there was no difference between IVR and slideshow lessons, but there were differences in the role of executive function in learning with these two media. For students learning in IVR, executive function correlated significantly with post‐test scores, such that learners with stronger executive function did better on the posttest than those with weaker executive function, while for students learning with a slideshow lesson, executive function and working memory capacity did not correlate significantly with posttest scores. This research indicates that it is important to understand how a learner's attentional controls impact their understanding when using IVR for learning. Lay Description: What is already know about this topic: Immersive virtual reality increases demands on cognition for learners.Immersive virtual reality for learning has inconsistent effects in prior research.Executive function and working memory capacity are important components in processing material while learning. What this paper adds: Research focused on the role individual differences play in learning with technology.Using common cognitive assessments to understand the process of learning better. Implications for practice and/or policy: Executive function predicted test score for an immersive virtual reality lesson.Use of immersive technology needs to take into account executive function to reduce potential inequity in learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Deep discussions play an important role in students' online learning. However, researchers have largely focused on engaging students in deep discussions in online asynchronous forums. Few studies have investigated how to promote deep discussion via mobile instant messaging (MIM). Objectives: In this study, we applied learning analytical tools (i.e., KBdeX and word clouds) to enhance students' shared epistemic agency and thereby support their deep discussions in MIM. Methods: Forty Chinese college students participated in this study and reflected on their MIM engagement by participating in the learning analytics (LA)‐augmented meta‐discourse sessions. The study used multiple data analysis methods, including content analysis, statistical analysis, epistemic network analysis and lag sequential analysis. Results: We found that LA engaged students in deep discussions and shared epistemic agency‐related discourse, such as creating shared understanding, creating knowledge objects, and projective and regulative processes. In particular, word clouds engaged students in more complete shared epistemic agency discourse trajectory which started from creating awareness of unknowns, then progressed to setting projective plans and sharing information, and ultimately, creating shared understanding. Moreover, our analysis indicated that epistemic agency discourse moves of creating shared understanding led students to a high level of deep discussion. Implications: This study contributes to research by extending the 'comparison paradigm', which focuses on comparing (a)synchronous forums with MIM, to a 'design paradigm', which mobilises design features from (a)synchronous forums to MIM and using learning analytical tools to engage students in deep online discussions by promoting their epistemic agency. Lay Description: What is known in this subject matter: Supporting students' online deep discussions is important.Prior studies have shown multiple technological and pedagogical strategies to support deep discussions in (a)synchronous discussion forums, but few studies in mobile instant messaging (MIM).MIM is a quasi‐synchronous tool. It is difficult to transform the traditional external scaffolds (i.e., scripts or teachers' facilitation) which promote deep discussions from (a)synchronous forums to MIM. What this paper adds to this: We constructed a design framework which used learning analytical tools‐augmented meta‐discourse to engage students in shared epistemic agency discourse moves to promote their deep discussion in MIM.We conducted multiple types of analyses (content analysis, statistical analysis, epistemic network analysis and lag sequential analysis) on students' WeChat message (a major MIM in China).Results indicated both learning analytical tools helped engage students in shared epistemic agency discourse moves, such as creating shared understanding, creating knowledge objects, projective and regulative, thus, to promote students' deep discussions. Word cloud especially engaged students in more complete shared epistemic agency discourse trajectory. Moreover, analysis results indicated that shared epistemic agency discourse moves of creating shared understanding would lead students to a high level of deep discussions. Implications of study findings for practitioners: Our study provides a feasible way to educational practitioners who want to promote students' deep discussions in their online learning course (both fully online and flipped classroom mode).Knowledge Building Discourse Explorer (KBDeX presents the original analysis results of students' written messages in discussion forums as socio‐cognitive networks.) could be implemented in the classroom. The objective is to encourage students to understand the importance of connecting with peers' ideas in a one‐session implementation period.If time allows, teachers could use word cloud and meta‐discourse to engage students in socio‐metacognitive conversations in class to promote their shared epistemic agency discourse in online discussions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Study: Previous systematic reviews concluded that online professional‐learning communities (OPLCs) have positive effects on teachers' development, but explored neither the technological affordances that make this possible nor the potential negative impacts of technology use in OPLCs. Objectives: The aim of this study is to systematically analyse previous research on teachers' OPLCs, and thus help answer the question of what technological affordances (dis)empower members of teachers' OPLCs, and how they do so. Methods: This study applied the systematic‐review method. A total of 28 studies were identified and analysed using rigorously defined inclusion and exclusion criteria. The results are reported as a synthesis. Results and Conclusions: First, in theme, the selected articles primarily focused on features of OPLCs and of teachers' knowledge. Second, mixed‐methods approaches were commonly used in the sampled research, and the number of studies employing advanced statistical methods and machine learning increased over time. And third, the reviewed studies' findings suggest that technology supports 'bottom‐up' teachers' communities (as distinct from 'top‐down' professional development organized by educational authorities) in seven ways: that is, by promoting collaboration opportunities, expanding the participants' networks, facilitating knowledge sharing, delivering support more rapidly, providing emotional support, allowing ubiquitous learning, and enabling multiple modes of participation. Lay Description: What is currently known about the subject matter: Previous reviews found OPLCs have positive effects on teachers' development. What their paper adds to this: What technological affordances empower teachers in OPLCs.How technological affordances empower teachers in OPLCs. The implications of study findings for practitioners: The sampled articles primarily focused on OPLC features and teacher knowledge.Mixed‐methods approaches were commonly used.Technology provides various affordances to 'bottom‐up' teachers' communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Reading comprehension is an interactive process. Yet, instructional needs are usually identified with isolated componential tests. This study examined whether a dynamic approach, in which componential abilities are measured within the same text and global text comprehension is facilitated via feedback, can help in understanding variation in children's reading comprehension. Objectives: With a pretest‐posttest control group design, componential abilities before and after feedback were related to growth in global text comprehension within the same text. Methods: At pretest, third to fifth graders read 30 short texts, each followed by one global text comprehension question. This was repeated at posttest, but additional questions were asked with feedback prior to each global text comprehension question. The vocabulary group received two vocabulary questions with feedback (n = 97). The vocabulary plus integration group received two vocabulary questions and one sentence‐integration question with feedback (n = 98). The control group (n = 98) only answered the global text comprehension questions. Results and Conclusion: Participants in the experimental conditions who needed feedback (i.e., lower‐skilled) experienced a decrease in global text comprehension, whereas this was not found for the control group and participants in the experimental groups who did not need feedback (i.e., higher‐skilled). There was also less decrease among those lower‐skilled participants who had profited from the feedback. Implications: It is concluded from explorative analyses that not feedback but the overall design caused the decrease. Conceptually, the dynamic approach is worth further research. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Reading comprehension is a complex interaction of several componential abilities at word level, sentence level, and text level (e.g., vocabulary and sentence‐integration).Instruction should adapt to the profile of strengths and weaknesses in componential abilities.Assessing componential abilities with isolated tests does not align with the interactive processes in reading comprehension.Measuring learning ability can help to identify children with low responsiveness to instruction. What this paper adds: Reading comprehension is profiled by asking questions on vocabulary, sentence‐integration, and global text comprehension for the same text in third to fifth graders (8–11 years olds).Feedback is provided after a mistake in a vocabulary and sentence‐integration question, and the feedback effect on global text comprehension is measured with a pretest‐posttest design.Children who receive feedback decrease in global text comprehension but children with higher skills in componential abilities decrease less.Explorative analyses and previous research indicate that the assessment design had a negative impact on performance, for example, via cognitive load, attention, self‐esteem, and motivation. Implications for practice and/or policy: Global text comprehension cannot always be facilitated by providing feedback on vocabulary and sentence‐integration within the same text.The design of the assessment and its influence on performance should be carefully considered by instructional designers, educators, and researchers, especially in case of young learners.It remains unclear from this study if facilitating global text comprehension via feedback with a dynamic approach is useful to understand variation in children's reading comprehension.The dynamic approach with a proper design may potentially still provide a useful insight in individual differences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Learning from video lectures with peers, that is, co‐viewing video lectures, is a common mode of learning across a wide range of ages and topics in the information age. Objectives: The present study tested the effects of learners' motivation on co‐viewing video lectures in terms of learning performance, mental effort, and interpersonal brain synchronization (IBS). Methods: The current study was quantitative experimental. In total, 142 participants were recruited and divided into 71 dyads to manipulate task motivation from three aspects: meaning, interest, and reward. Then, they were divided into three experimental conditions according to the level of task motivation: two low task motivation learners (LL condition), a combination of one low and the other high (HL condition), and two high task motivation learners (HH condition). Two participants in a dyad were asked to view a video lecture on a shared screen and not talk until the end of the video lecture, with both learners in full view. Simultaneously, we recorded the cortical hemodynamic activity of two participants in each dyad using functional near‐infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Results and Conclusions: The group‐level analysis showed that two high‐task motivation learners had better learning performance, greater mental effort, and stronger IBS than a combination of one low and one high‐task motivation and two low‐task motivation. The results from the individual assessment indicated that pairing a person with low task motivation with another with high task motivation resulted in benefits for the low‐task motivation learner in terms of their self‐perceived learning. However, it negatively affected the performance of the high task motivation learner. Implications: First, high‐task motivation learners were encouraged to co‐view video lectures. Second, instructors were encouraged to intervene between their interactions by providing timely feedback to avoid losses for high‐task motivation learners, as this composition benefits low‐task motivation learners. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Most studies consider viewing video lectures as an individual process and test the role of learners' motivation at the individual level.Co‐viewing video lectures is a common mode of learning across a wide range of ages and topics in the information age.Learners' task motivation is essential for optimal learning in various settings. What this paper adds: Having two high task motivation co‐viewers enhanced their learning, encompassing retention, transfer, and confidence in performing well.Having two high task motivation co‐viewers enhanced IBS in the rTPJ‐rTPJ and IPL‐SMA pairings.Pairing a low task motivation learner with a high task motivation learner could be beneficial for the low task motivation learner, but it may result in losses for the high task motivation learner. Implications for practice and/or policy: Future work should verify the conclusions of the current study in natural settings, allowing verbal interaction versus settings permitting only nonverbal interaction and avoiding experimenter expectations.Future research should continue to test the long‐term effects of pairing a low task motivation learner with a high task motivation learner.We encourage high task motivation learners to co‐view video lectures.Instructors are advised to intervene in the interaction of pairs of a low task motivation learner with a high task motivation learner, for instance, by providing timely feedback. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Valuable safeguards against fast‐spreading conjectures about learning in times of fear and uncertainty are evidence‐based approaches to the assessment of the impact of sudden and unforeseen disruptions on learning practices. The present research focused on physics learning in such times because conceptual and computational literacy in physics is critical to the development of a scientifically and technologically literate society. Objectives: The present research aimed (a) to offer an objective assessment of whether performance differences in a physics course of the general education curriculum existed between the face‐to‐face medium (familiar mode of instruction) and the online medium (unfamiliar mode of instruction) for both male and female students, and then (b) to develop a response to the evidence collected to ensure a quality education for all parties involved. The research intended to fill two critical gaps in the extant literature: mixed findings concerning students' performance in the face‐to‐face and online mediums as well as scarce coverage of specific domains of knowledge that are critical to STEM learners. Methods: Students' performance was examined as a function of the type of assessment (formative and summative), instructional mode (online and face‐to‐face), and gender. An understudied student population of STEM students of Middle Eastern descent without prior formal exposure to online instruction was targeted. Results and Conclusions: In both formative and summative assessments, male students performed better online than face‐to‐face, whereas the performance of female students was either higher online or equivalent between instructional mediums. The evidence collected suggested that consideration be given to remedies that foster academic success in the face‐to‐face instructional medium, particularly for male students. Takeaways: An evidence‐based approach to learning dismantled emotion‐driven expectations regarding the impact of the online medium on physics learning, and encouraged new perspectives about instruction. Lay Description: What is already known?: Ongoing debates on the impact of the pandemic on students' learning shape decisions regarding future reliance on the online medium for instruction. What this paper adds: The extant literature is mixed concerning performance in the face‐to‐face and online mediums, including particular domains of knowledge critical to STEM learning.This study focused on physics learning in an understudied population of STEM students who were unaccustomed to online instruction.Performance was higher online than face‐to‐face, but gender differences emerged. Implications for practice: Lessons learned focused on the flexibility of online learning and on the need to develop materials to enhance learning in males enrolled in face‐to‐face or hybrid/blended classes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a large volume of published studies describing the positive role of Augmented Reality (AR) in educational settings. However, there is a paucity of empirical work that explores its role in supporting primary school pupil's motivation and creativity. Moreover, numerous studies have confirmed that pupils have difficulties in learning geometry and thinking geometrically. In this context, this paper explores the possibility of using AR software for low‐grade primary school pupils to enhance their creative thinking and increase their motivation during the informal geometry training course. A research‐based design process is adopted to replicate the primary school pupil's learning in this study, where pupils in the experimental group used mobile application to access AR virtual manipulatives, pupils in the control group used physical manipulatives. The applied AR technology allows pupils to handle 2D and 3D rounded corners and simple closed curves to find the most effective solutions for some learning challenges. Sixty‐two pupils from the first‐grade primary school in Egypt have participated in this study with the aim of investigating: (a) the primary school pupil's achievements and creative thinking in using AR techniques, and (b) the specific strategies that can increase their motivation and engagement. The most obvious finding to emerge from this study is that there was no statistically significant difference between the groups in geometry learning achievement, while statistically significant differences were found between the groups in the motivation and creative thinking skills in favour of the experimental group. Lay Description: What is already known about this topicAugmented Reality must have three characteristics: combining the real and virtual worlds, having real‐time interaction with the user and is being registered in a 3D environment.There is a growing body of literature that recognizes the importance of the 21st century skills in the new global economy.There has been significant interest in utilized AR in higher education. However, limited research has been conducted about integrating AR techniques to enhance young children's creative thinking skills and motivation in informal learning scenarios.To date, there are few studies that have investigated the association between augmented environment and learning theories. What this paper addsIntroduced an iterative methodology based on the cognitive theory of multimedia learning integrating the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) as the inclusive learning approach for creating Smart‐flashcard as a mobile AR applications for elementary school.Research studies on informal learning are particularly limited, so this study can fill a gap in the literature.This paper provides a conceptual approach for AR design, based on multimedia learning theory.AR Smart‐flashcard application represents a shift away from traditional textbooks, flashcards and other learning material where children are limited to viewing learning content passively towards a more dynamic and augmented one. Implications for practice and/or policyUsing AR applications, children interact with the 3D models, enhance creativity and collaboration in teams.The informal education can play a crucial role in developing some of the skills required for the 21st century.The study also highlights the need for new approaches combing the technical learning tools and pedagogical foundation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multimodal data have the potential to explore emerging learning practices that extend human cognitive capacities. A critical issue stretching in many multimodal learning analytics (MLA) systems and studies is the current focus aimed at supporting researchers to model learner behaviours, rather than directly supporting learners. Moreover, many MLA systems are designed and deployed without learners' involvement. We argue that in order to create MLA interfaces that directly support learning, we need to gain an expanded understanding of how multimodal data can support learners' authentic needs. We present a qualitative study in which 40 computer science students were tracked in an authentic learning activity using wearable and static sensors. Our findings outline learners' curated representations about multimodal data and the non‐technical challenges in using these data in their learning practice. The paper discusses 10 dimensions that can serve as guidelines for researchers and designers to create effective and ethically aware student‐facing MLA innovations. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Many MLA systems are designed without learners' involvement.Understanding of how multimodal data can support learners' authentic needs is needed.MLA have the potential to enable the automated generation of models to provide real‐time feedback. What this paper adds: Understanding how learners perceive multimodal data and the learning context.The findings outline the soft challenges in using multimodal data in the learning practice.Ten dimensions were identified to serve as guidelines for researchers and designers.The paper reports learners' perspectives describing new, intriguing, and under‐developed ideas about potential uses of multimodal data in educational context.The discussion on the need for human‐centred design approaches for educational technologies has been presented. Implications for practice and/or policy: Relevant pointers for what is appropriate and ethically necessary when designing learning technologies.Change in perspective among educators, on how they address progress and engagement in learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Panoramic video as a novel instructional media with increasing educational application. However, empirical research on panoramic video instruction is mostly episodic with conditional and inconclusive results. Objectives: This study reviewed 10 years (2011–2021) of research on panoramic video in education to synthesize, meta‐analyse, and critically evaluate the state‐of‐art research findings, which can inform future educational practice and research directions. Methods: Following the protocol of systematic review, this study selected 83 articles from four major research databases and analysed them from five interrelated aspects: instructional context, technological features, instructional design, research design, and instructional effect. A meta‐analysis was also conducted to determine the overall effectiveness of panoramic video on education and the moderating factors. Results and Conclusions: The results revealed a rapid upward trend in publication since 2018 with unequal distribution among regions and learning domains. Despite the technical advancement in immersion and interaction, panoramic videos were found to mainly support the acquisition of content and factual knowledge through direct instruction, and lack in‐video scaffolding and assessment. Moreover, many interventions were one‐time, short‐term studies that are susceptible of novelty effect. Lastly, an overall medium effect (g = 0.711) of panoramic video was reported and six significant moderating factors were identified based on the meta‐analysis results. Major takeaways and implications: Panoramic videos are ubiquitously effective across grade levels, learning domains, and pedagogies, but are more suitable for teaching conceptual knowledge. Design features such as interaction, scaffolding, assessment, iteration, and video length deserve our special attention in panoramic video instruction. Lay Description: What is Currently Known About the Subject Matter: Panoramic video is immersive, affordable, and easy to produce and use.Panoramic video has been widely used in various fields, including education.Research on panoramic video in education has been episodic with inconclusive results. What This Paper Adds: It provides a systematic review of panoramic video in education from 2011 to 2021.It reveals effective technological and pedagogical features of panoramic video instruction.It reports an overall medium effect of panoramic video in education and several moderating factors through meta‐analysis. Implications of This Study for Practitioners: Panoramic video is ubiquitously effective across varying grade levels but is more suitable to teach conceptual knowledge.Design features such as video length, rounds, scaffolding, assessment, and interaction merit special attention for creating panoramic video instruction.Research in panoramic video featured by diversified methodologies, varying data type, and cost‐effectiveness analysis is needed in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a new approach for the formation of four‐member collaborative learning groups is presented. Group formation is presented by the mathematical optimization problem. Based on the proposed approach and the variable neighbourhood search (VNS) algorithm, the application that solves the presented problem and provides the appropriate division into groups is created. The proposed approach considers the scores of a pretest, interpersonal relationships, and prosocial behaviour/openness skill of students. In order to validate our approach, an experiment was designed with 108 first‐year university students of Belgrade Business School—Higher Educational Institution for Applied Studies. Experimental and control groups were divided into four‐member groups. The experimental group was divided by using the proposed method and the control group by student selection and random selection. Multilevel analysis is used to determine whether there is a significant difference in learning outcomes between the two groups. The experimental results showed that students from the experimental group achieved significantly higher success than the students from the control group. In addition, computational results obtained with the proposed VNS algorithms are compared and verified with the results obtained by random (Monte Carlo) method. Lay Description: What is currently known about the subject matter of this paper: Group formation have great influence on the success of collaborative learning.Consideration of multiple variables for group formation can be very demanding.Previous computer‐based methods for group formation do not use VNS. What this paper adds: In this paper, new metaheuristic approach for group formation is proposed.The proposed approach considers the scores of a pretest.The proposed approach considers interpersonal relationships.The proposed approach considers prosocial behaviour/openness skill of students. The implications of study findings for practitioners: The proposed approach have positive impact on students' academic performance.This approach can divide a large number of students into smaller groups based on multiple variables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increasing popularity of Facebook has prompted scholars and educators to explore its potentials as a learning environment for various fields of education. Along this line, several reviews of literature have been written about the educational use of Facebook; however, none of them have focused on a specific field of interest such as language pedagogy. Thus, this paper defines the contour of scholarly literature on Facebook as a technology‐enhanced learning environment in language teaching and learning. Using Scopus database as a source, 41 scholarly documents were retrieved and analysed. The demographics of the selected studies show that most of the published research came from Asia and were conducted in the higher education context. In terms of foci of interest, most of the studies focused on developing students' general language proficiency and productive skills. Although a great majority of the studies relied on self‐report data and preexperimental research, the current literature suggests the viability of integrating Facebook into language pedagogy. Suggestions for future studies are discussed. Lay Description: What is currently known about the subject matter: Facebook remains to be the most popular social networking site.A significant number of research have been published about Facebook as a learning environment.Interest in Facebook for educational purposes has been increasing.At least five reviews on Facebook as a learning environment has been published since 2011. What this paper adds: The current study zeroes in on a specific field of study (i.e., language teaching and learning).The current study takes into account studies published between 2010 and 2017.The current study analyses the studies in terms of demographics and foci of interest.The current study attempts to define the contour of scholarly literature on Facebook as a technology‐enhanced learning environment in language teaching and learning. Implications of study findings for practitioners: The findings provide various ways on how Facebook can be implemented for pedagogical purposes.The findings present challenges and issues that need to be confronted for efficient use of Facebook pedagogical affordances.Facebook is a viable tool for technology‐enhanced assessment.Future Facebook‐related studies may embark on underexplored areas of language pedagogy such as teacher cognition, language learning strategies, and development of multiliteracies and pragmatic competence of students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Cultivating staff's professional English has become an imperative and challenging issue in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) countries. English for medical professionals is also the common language around the world for publishing new medical knowledge or reports. Therefore, Medical English for Health Professionals (MEHP) is a crucial required professional training program in nursing education. Its purpose is to improve nursing students' professional English so that they can directly understand the clinical medical information related to patients, thereby reading the latest international medical knowledge and participating in research themselves. Objective: The MEHP program is commonly conducted in a large‐scale class using the lecturing approach, which is a passive learning mode lacking opportunities for individual students to experience learning contexts and to receive advice and guidance from the teacher. To solve this problem, the present study proposed a motivation model‐based professional English gaming approach. Method: To verify the effects of the proposed approach, a quasi‐experiment was conducted in an MEHP program of a university to explore the effects of the approach on nursing students' learning achievements. In addition, the higher and lower achievers' behavioural patterns, as well as their perceptions of the learning approach, were investigated. Results and Conclusions: The results showed that the motivation model‐based digital gaming approach improved the students' professional English achievements in the "application" dimension as well as their positive perceptions of learning professional English more than the conventional learning approach. Moreover, when learning with the proposed approach, the higher achievers revealed more positive behavioural patterns than the lower achievers. The main contributions of the study are the proposal of a motivation model‐based digital gaming approach, and showing the effectiveness of the proposed approach in helping trainees gain a deeper understanding of professional English and facilitating their positive learning behaviours in a course for medical English. Practitioner notes: What is already known about this topic: Scholars have indicated the importance of situating learners in authentic contexts.Digital games can provide learning contexts for English as Foreign Language (EFL) learners.Digital games have potential to motivate EFL learners to actively learn and practice English. What this paper adds: A motivation model‐based digital gaming approach is proposed for professional English learning.A digital game has been implemented for Medical English for Health Professionals (MEHP) based on the proposed approach.An experiment has been conducted to examine the effectiveness of the approach and to analyse learners' behaviours using the proposed approach. Implications for practice and/or policy: The motivation model‐based digital gaming approach has great potential in improving learners' professional achievements.The motivation model‐based digital gaming approach can promote learners' positive behavioural patterns.It is recommended to apply the approach to other professional English courses for EFL learners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Formative online multiple‐choice tests are ubiquitous in higher education and potentially powerful learning tools. However, commonly used feedback approaches in online multiple‐choice tests can discourage meaningful engagement and enable strategies, such as trial‐and‐error, that circumvent intended learning outcomes. These strategies will not prepare graduates as self‐regulated learners, nor for the complexities of contemporary work settings. Objectives: To investigate whether providing only a score after formative online multiple‐choice test attempts (score‐only feedback) increases the likelihood of students to engage in self‐regulated learning compared with more directive feedback. Measurable outcomes included deeper learning, collaboration, information seeking, and satisfaction. Methods: Data in this mixed methods study were collected from nursing students through surveys, test results, focus groups, and student discussion board contributions. A quasi‐experimental design was used for quantitative data, and qualitative data were analysed thematically against domains of self‐regulated learning. Results and Conclusions: Students receiving score‐only feedback were more cognitively engaged with the content, collaborated constructively, and sought out richer sources of information. However, it was also associated with lower satisfaction. In this study, minimal feedback created states of uncertainty, which resulted in the activation of self‐regulatory actions. Implications for Practice: Providing overly directive feedback for formative online multiple‐choice tests is conducive to surface‐level learning strategies. By minimising feedback and allowing for extended states of uncertainty, students are more likely to regulate their learning through self‐assessment and problem‐solving strategies, all of which are required by graduates to meet the challenges of real‐world work settings. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Formative online multiple‐choice tests are widely used in higher education.Feedback is a critical element in the design of effective online multiple‐choice tests.Formative feedback should promote self‐regulated learning.Feedback types used in multiple‐choice tests facilitate strategies not conducive to self‐regulation. What this paper adds: Online multiple‐choice test feedback can influence how students self‐regulate their learning.Less feedback can result in greater self‐evaluation and performance in summative assessment.Less feedback can encourage richer help‐seeking strategies (collaboration and information seeking).However, less feedback can result in student dissatisfaction. Implications for practice and/or policy: Judicious use of feedback is required in the design of online multiple‐choice tests.Educators should consider providing less feedback to promote learner self‐regulation.Satisfaction with online multiple‐choice tests does not necessarily equate to greater learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In today's society, a growing body of literature attests to the importance of young children's early digital literacy skills in their home environments and how acquisition of these digital literacy skills relates to their future learning and digital literacy. Objectives: Research on young children's digital literacy practices at home was reviewed to explore the positive and negative influences on early learning. This is important due to the children's rapid uptake of online digital technologies over the past decade. Methods: Peer‐reviewed research articles on home digital literacy practices of children (aged 0–8 years old) published between 2010 and 2021 from four education databases were carefully selected based upon pre‐determined criteria and examined using content analysis. Results and Conclusion: A high proportion of studies (29 of the 31; 93.5%) demonstrated significant benefits of young children gaining a range of skills, including digital operational, early literacy and language, socio‐emotional, and STEM, through the use of digital technologies at home. Five of the 31 (16.12%) studies reported negative effects of digital technologies in the home context, including distraction, aggressive behaviour, and false self‐confidence. Tablets and smartphone use gained greater momentum in the home context, especially between 2015 and 2021, and there was a positive shift in parental mediation, family involvement, and the children's home digital literacy practices. Implications: By leveraging children's acquisition of digital literacy skills in the home and taking into account the sociocultural context, we can enhance young children's preparation for the future and provide opportunities for skill development across various learning domains. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: The literature shows use of tablets in the home by children have gained momentum.Parents have different attitudes towards using digital technologies in the home context.Parents have used different mediation strategies to control, supervise and support their children's home digital literacy practices. What this paper adds: Within the past decade, parents have extended their mediation strategies to support their children's home digital literacy practices.Young children move from early digital literacy to proficient digital literacy within the home.Home digital literacy practices can foster important skills in young children such as language and literacy, operational, socio‐emotional, and STEM.Artificial intelligence devices such as smart robots are extending children's home digital literacy practices. Implications for practice and/or policy: Understanding the sociocultural differences of young children can help parents, teachers, and policymakers to facilitate digital literacy skill acquisition.Fostering young children's basic language literacy, operational, socio‐emotional, and STEM skills through technology use in the home before formal education is essential.Extending young children's home digital literacy practices to other contexts such as the classroom is necessary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Small private online courses (SPOCs) are one of the strategies to introduce the massive open online courses (MOOCs) within the university environment and to have these courses validates for academic credit. However, numerous researchers have highlighted that academic dishonesty is greatly facilitated by the online context in which SPOCs are offered. And while numerous algorithms have already been proposed, no research has been performed on how to transfer this information to instructors, so that they can intervene and decrease the prevalence of this issue. Objectives: In this article, we present a qualitative evaluation of a tool for detecting and monitoring students suspected of academic dishonesty in SPOCs in Selene, a Colombian instance of Open edX. Methods: The evaluation was carried out through semi‐structured interviews with four instructors who taught SPOCs with academic recognition at the University of Cauca. Results: The evaluation results indicated that participants found the dashboard reliable and appropriate to detect academic dishonesty behaviours in order to intervene in these cases. Implications: But interventions are difficult to systematise, need an institutional policy, and there is uncertainty about whether these interventions can actually contribute to decreasing academic dishonesty. Lay Description: What is currently known about the subject matter: There are studies that detect academic dishonesty behaviour through webcams in massive open online courses (MOOCs).There are studies based on Learning Analytics techniques for the detection of academic dishonesty behaviour in MOOCs.There are dashboards for monitoring students' learning activities in online courses. What their paper adds to this: An algorithm for real‐time detection of academic dishonesty behaviour in small private online courses (SPOCs) with academic recognition is presented.A dashboard for the visualisation of students' academic dishonesty behaviour in SPOCs is presented.A qualitative evaluation of a dashboard for the detection of academic dishonesty in SPOCs with academic recognition is presented. Implications of study findings for practitioners: Our work opens an avenue for exploration of different ways to detect and follow up on academic dishonesty in online courses.Implies that trainers should have a basic knowledge of data analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multimedia instruction, the combination of pictures and words to produce meaningful learning, involves attention, selection, organization, and integration of new information with previously learned information. Because there is a large, theory‐based literature supporting the effectiveness of multimedia instruction, we proposed that multimedia instruction could be leveraged to address issues in health communication. The cognitive theory of multimedia learning outlines techniques to improve meaningful learning when the processing load of essential information exceeds the cognitive capacity of the learner (Mayer, 2014). Specifically, segmentation, or presentation of the material in a learner paced fashion, results in deeper learning of the material than continuous presentation (Mayer & Chandler, 2001). We proposed a conceptual replication of the segmentation effect with multimedia materials relevant in a health communication context. We hypothesized that transfer of information from a multimedia presentation about kidney function would be improved in a segmented, versus continuous, condition. Additionally, we hypothesized that participants' perceived cognitive load during the learning task would be lower in the segmented, versus continuous, presentation condition. We were unable to replicate either of these advantages for the use of segmentation with health‐related materials. Lay Description: What We Know: A large portion of the population is low in health literacy.Current suggestions to improve physician‐patient communication involve removing information that is essential for patients to be engaged in their own healthcare decision‐making.Few suggestions to improve physician‐patient communication are based on systematic evaluation of what works for which patients.From cognitive psychology, we know that learner‐paced multimedia presentations can improve meaningful learning. What This Paper Contributes: This paper draws on the cognitive theory of multimedia learning to improve health communications.This research is a conceptual replication of previous research in multimedia learning testing the segmentation effect (a benefit from learner‐paced presentations) with materials that would be relevant in a healthcare setting (kidney function). Implications: If segmented presentations result in deeper learning, then patient education materials could be readily adapted to this format.Segmented multimedia presentations, perhaps available to patients online, could help address issues of low health literacy and improve patient engagement. What We Found: Segmentation of a multimedia presentation of information relevant in a healthcare setting did not lead to a significant reduction in cognitive load or a benefit for remembering basic facts or transfer of the information to new problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: To purposefully integrate information and communication technologies (ICT) into contemporary teaching, teachers must have complex technological, pedagogical and content‐related knowledge (TPACK). TPACK could be fostered through diverse learning environments such as working in a makerspace as part of university teacher training. The development of TPACK in (preservice) teachers depends on how effectively they can assess their own knowledge and adapt their own learning process. Self‐assessment tools can be used to identify and assess their individual TPACK. Objectives: The study presents data on TPACK development through project work in a makerspace. It examines the consistency of self‐assessment and performance tests in relation to TPACK and discusses the applicability of self‐assessment scales to self‐regulated learning. Methods: TPACK self‐assessment takes place among preservice teacher students (N = 327) in a pre‐post design. This is complemented and contrasted with an external assessment in form of a self‐developed performance test (teaching vignettes). Results: Self‐assessment and performance test show a TPACK‐increase resulting in the project work in the makerspace, with higher performing students benefiting more from the intervention than lower performing students. All students tend to overestimate their TPACK before and after the intervention, with low‐performing students overestimating themselves more than high‐performing students. Existing TPACK scales can serve as readily available self‐assessment tools, but should be complemented by other knowledge assessment measures. Furthermore, depending on the results of the self‐assessment, different learning opportunities should be made available so that preservice teachers with a lower TPACK still benefit from the project work in the makerspace. Take Away: Self‐assessments accompanying the work in the makerspace could provide feedback information about TPACK‐related knowledge, learning processes and learning outcomes and thus support students in structuring their work. For this purpose, it seems necessary to improve the quality of self‐assessment to enable reliable reflection on preservice teachers' own learning process. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: The opportunities for using ICT in schools are developing rapidly, and with them, the demands on teachers' skills (TPACK; e.g., Becker et al., 2020; Eickelmann & Gerick, 2020; Redecker, 2017).Many studies measuring TPACK largely use measurement instruments that required students to self‐assess their TPACK (e.g., Handal et al., 2013; Kaplon‐Schilis & Lyublinskaya, 2019; Lee & Tsai, 2010; Willermark, 2017).Research on TPACK emphasizes that self‐testing TPACK via self‐assessment should be complemented by performance tests in order to better understand the domain‐specific nature of TPACK and its complexity (e.g., Akyuz, 2018; Graham et al., 2009; Voogt et al., 2013). What this paper adds: The research provides information on the extent to which TPACK changes triggered by an intervention can be captured using self‐assessment scales and a self‐developed performance test.The data shows how consistent students' self‐assessments are compared to their demonstrated performance.Furthermore, we critically discuss to what extent scales developed to measure TPACK in scientific studies can also be applied to self‐directed learning. Implications for practice: Prospective teachers must acquire TPACK competences for the implementation of contemporary teaching, which will enable them to produce digital teaching and learning materials in the future, for example. This TPACK is to be trained through self‐organized project work in the pedagogical Makerspace within the framework of university subject teaching.Self‐assessment instruments for TPACK can be more easily used in the field to accompany projects so that students can receive feedback on knowledge, learning process, and learning outcome. However, our study shows that existing self‐assessment instruments can be used mainly in self‐directed learning processes when learning gains on the complexity levels 'remembering' and 'understanding' are to be captured, even though feedback especially in the area of 'applying' TPACK is of great importance for teaching practice. Combining self‐assessments (based on work samples) and performance tests is therefore a promising approach, as the complementary use of performance tests provides insights into preservice teachers' abilities to 'apply' TPACK.The moderate correlation between self‐assessment and performance in our study also shows that self‐assessment is a skill that needs to be learned. Therefore, the use of self‐assessments for self‐regulated learning should be more accompanied by learning opportunities for learning self‐assessment (Bol et al., 2012). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Explorative online information search activities are self‐regulated learning processes that require monitoring in the form of accurate metacognitive judgments about one's own knowledge. People have to judge what they know, but also understand what they do not know. Previous research has explored those two aspects in relation to each other mostly by employing measures of metacognitive calibration and points toward a potential detrimental effect of using the internet to answer knowledge test items. Objectives: This research aimed to disentangle those two aspects of knowledge and to describe a false certainty effect (FaCE), indicating an increase in confidence in the correctness of incorrect responses in a knowledge test after online information search. We also aimed to further explore the conditions under which this effect occurs. Methods: In two studies participants' knowledge and on‐item confidence ratings were measured before and after a short online information search activity. In Study 1, we analyzed data of two samples with and without knowledge gain. In Study 2, we manipulated the familiarity of knowledge test items and whether there was an information search activity. Results: Study 1 showed that false certainty occurred even when a search activity did not lead to any learning success. This FaCE, however, was stronger when there was actual knowledge gain. In Study 2, we found that the effect was caused by the information search activity itself and not by the pre‐post methodology of identical knowledge‐test items. Implications: Our results demonstrate the emergence of increased confidence in the correctness of incorrect responses in knowledge tests after online information search activities. Educators and researchers should be aware of this undesired false certainty effect of computer‐assisted learning on individuals' knowledge monitoring. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Online information search in order to learn about a knowledge topic is a frequent activity in everyday life and different educational contexts.Individuals engaging in online search need to regulate their learning behaviour, which can be challenging.Monitoring what is known and (not yet) known is an important aspect of those regulatory processes. What this paper adds: Online information search activities with or without knowledge gain result in increased certainty in one's knowledge.Such activities also increase false certainty in what is not known as measured by confidence in the correctness of false answers to knowledge test items.This increase in false certainty can be observed for different knowledge topics and varying information search contexts. Implications for practice and/or policy: Our results highlight the need for educators to think about efforts to reduce the false certainty effect in online information search. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: As one of the gamification elements, leaderboard, especially absolute leaderboard, is widely used in educational gamification systems. However, empirical studies on the optimal use condition of the leaderboard and underlying influence mechanisms are deficient. Objectives: This study explored which difficulty was more conducive to learning performance in leaderboard context, and when and how it played a role. Methods: To address these questions, this study conducted a 2 (dominant goal orientation: learning/performance) × 2 (difficulty: high/low) between‐subjects design. Seventy‐eight dominant learning‐oriented and 78 dominant performance‐oriented participants were recruited and randomly assigned to the high or low difficulty group respectively. Results and Conclusions: Participants in the low difficulty group experienced more positive emotions, less negative emotions, and higher learning motivation than those in the high difficulty group, but the effect of difficulty on performance was not significant. Moreover, goal orientation did not moderate the effects of difficulty, dominant learning‐oriented and performance‐oriented learners were equally affected by difficulty. Further mediating analysis showed that negative emotions and learning motivation rather than positive emotions mediated the relationship between difficulty and learning performance. Implications: These results confirmed the positive effect of low difficulty in leaderboard context, as well as the mediating roles of emotions and motivation involved in the relationship between difficulty and learning performance. These findings enlighten us that it is necessary to equip leaderboards in educational gamification with achievable difficulty. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: As one of the gamification elements, leaderboard was widely used in educational gamification.The effect of the leaderboard was not always consistent among various educational situations.Empirical studies on the optimal use condition of the leaderboard were deficient.The mechanisms by difficulty within leaderboards affected the learning performance were not clear. What this paper adds: Lower difficulty within leaderboards could induce more positive emotions, less negative emotions and higher learning motivation.Difficulty within leaderboards did not directly affect learning performance.Negative emotions and learning motivation mediated the relationship between difficulty and performance.Dominant goal orientation did not moderate the effect of difficulty on learning. The implications of study findings for practitioners: We could improve learners' emotional and motivational states by reducing difficulty within leaderboards.We could promote learning performance through appropriate emotional and motivational designs using gamification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Online discussion is one of the commonly used tools to enhance students' interactions and engagements in online courses, but it is not clear how social presence in online discussions impacts students' learning and what kinds of interactions we should encourage. Social network analysis provides a new methodology to investigate how social interactions in online discussions influence learning. Objectives: The study aims to identify students' online discussion interaction patterns and investigate how they are related to students' learning performance in an asynchronous course. Methods: Students who enrolled in an asynchronous undergraduate course were invited to participate in this study. Participants' online discussion participation data were collected from six online discussions from an asynchronous online course. Data were analysed using social network analysis methods as well as correlation and regression analysis. Results and Conclusions: We found that statistically significant positive correlations existed between learning performance and out‐degree and closeness, respectively, which provided evidence to support that social interactions in online discussions have positive correlations with learning. We also found that out‐closeness contributes to students' learning performance. The results of the study imply that knowledge construction occurs mainly in the centre of the outgoing network. By interpreting this study's results with the social construction of knowledge model, we conclude that knowledge construction mainly happens in reading and commenting on others' posts by internalizing and integrating external useful information from others. Implications: While numerous studies have emphasized the importance of interactions in online discussions or collaborative learning, there are limited studies on what kind of interactions we should encourage and what role students play in knowledge construction. The results of this study provide evidence that knowledge construction happens when students are reading and commenting on others' posts, which includes a hidden process of integrating external useful information into their own understanding. Practical strategies are provided to encourage students to be expansive and actively reach out to other students. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Vygotsky's social development theory stresses the interaction of interpersonal, cultural‐historical, and individual factors as the key to human development.The interactions among students in asynchronous online discussions play an important role in higher phases of knowledge creation.Some studies have investigated the relationship between knowledge construction and centrality measurements of networks in asynchronous online discussions using social network analysis method, but the results are mixed. What this paper adds: This study investigated the interaction patterns at a deep level by using social network analysis techniques. The three main interaction patterns were found in six online discussions of one online asynchronous course over one semester.The interaction patterns of the networks of these online discussions indicate that the majority of students are not expansive enough; moreover, the network density, transitivity, and clustering coefficient are low.Using social network analysis, this study has found that out‐degree and closeness measurements of the online discussion networks are positively correlated with students' academic performance. This study also found that out‐closeness contributes to students' learning performance. The results of this study imply that outgoing networks play a more crucial role than incoming networks in students' learning performance. It appears that knowledge construction happens mainly in the centre of the outgoing network. Implications for practice and/or policy: Knowledge construction happens when students are reading and commenting on others' posts, which includes a hidden process of integrating external useful information into their own understanding. This process may externalize as reading and commenting on others' posts in online discussions.Expansively interacting with others in online discussions plays a vital role in knowledge construction. It may be beneficial to encourage more student interactions in online discussions, especially encouraging students to be expansive and actively reach out to other students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Since the outbreak of COVID‐19, online courses have been extensively used from K‐12 to higher education. Online learning engagement, an important factor in online learning success, is currently at a low level in high school. Meanwhile, the research on the factors that influence high school students' online learning engagement is still limited. Objectives: Based on the theories of regulatory focus and value control, this study developed a multi‐mediation model to investigate whether self‐efficacy and academic emotions can mediate the relationship between regulatory focus and online learning engagement. Methods: A total of 926 high school student (52.16% female, mean age = 16.47 years) were recruited to participate in this study and completed self‐report measures of regulatory focus, online learning engagement, online learning self‐efficacy and academic emotions. And we used SPSS macro PROCESS developed by Hayes to examine the mediating role of online learning self‐efficacy and academic emotions. Results and Conclusions: The results indicated that promotion focus had a stable positive effect on online learning engagement of high school students, whereas prevention focus had a significant negative effect on the same. Self‐efficacy and positive emotions had a significant positive mediating effect between promotion focus and online learning engagement. Moreover, positive emotions had a significant positive mediating effect between the prevention focus and online learning engagement, while negative emotions had a significant negative mediating effect between them. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Regulatory focus is a self‐regulatory motivational orientation that has a significant impact on online learning for university students.Self‐efficacy and academic emotions are among the main factors that influence online learning engagement.Online learning has spread due to the COVID‐19 pandemic. Lack of understanding of online learning engagement for high school students. Lack of experience of teachers in teaching online. What this paper adds: Promotion focus had a steady significant positive effect on high school students' online learning engagement, while prevention focus had a significant negative effect on high school students' online learning engagement.Self‐efficacy and positive emotion had a significant positive mediating effect between promotion focus and online learning engagement.Positive emotion had a significant positive mediating effect between prevention focus and online learning engagement, while negative emotions had a significant negative mediating effect between them. Implications for practice and/or policy: These findings provide suggestions for instructional strategies for the online classroom. (1) It is important for online teachers to design appropriate learning contexts to initiate a promotion focus for learners in order to increase online learning engagement. For example, by designing online learning contextual elements such as learning activities, learning atmosphere, social interactions, media resources, and contexts, online learners' tendency to promotion focus is activated and learners' level of engagement in online learning is increased. (2) Online teachers can promote learning engagement by initiating a promotion focus, or they can improve students' accountability by initiating their prevention focus, as appropriate. (3) To ensure a certain level of engagement in online learning, teachers should use teaching and learning assessment methods that are predominantly promotion‐focused and supplemented by prevention‐focused methods to accommodate students' different motivational orientations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Though pedagogical artificial agents are expected to play a crucial role in the years to come, earlier studies provide inconsistent results regarding their effect on learning. This might be because their potential for exhibiting subtle nonverbal behaviours we know from human teachers has been untapped. What is more, there is little evidence of the processes underlying the effect of nonverbal behaviours of teachers (either human or artificial) on learning, so as to better guide their practical application. Objectives: The aims of the current research were threefold: firstly, to examine the effect of an artificial agent's vocal expressiveness on non‐verbal immediacy (teachers' ability to increase psychological closeness through nonverbal communication). Secondly, to test whether an artificial agent showing strong vocal expressiveness will enhance affective and cognitive learning (perceived and actual), as compared to an artificial agent that shows weak vocal expressiveness. Thirdly, to examine whether the underlying mechanisms of motivation and attention explain the effect of immediacy (and thereby also of vocal expressiveness) on the two learning outcomes. Methods: The study used a between‐participants design, with the participants being randomly assigned to one of the two experimental conditions: artificial modelling with strong expressiveness and artificial modelling with weak vocal expressiveness. Results and conclusions: Results showed that an artificial agent with strong vocal expressiveness increased affective and perceived cognitive learning. Partial support was found for actual cognitive learning. What is more, our findings revealed that vocal expressiveness is related to affective and perceived cognitive learning because it promotes nonverbal immediacy. Finally, results provided evidence of motivation as a mediator of the path from immediacy to affective learning. Major takeaways: The current findings verify the important role of nonverbal immediacy found in traditional educational settings. However, showing that these results also apply to artificial teachers is essential, given that the educational landscape is changing and reshaping by artificial intelligence. Thus, taking into consideration the role of vocal expressiveness in the development of artificial teachers or voice assistants like Alexa, Siri, and Google assistant, as a way to enhance immediacy and affective experience of learners is of imperative value, since they will be found more and more in our societies. Lay Description: What is currently known about the subject matter: There is a positive effect of nonverbal cues of human teachers on students' learningThe artificial agent's voice is important for learning. What their paper adds to this: Provides strong evidence of the positive effect of vocal expressiveness of artificial agents on learning outcomes.Reveals that vocal expressiveness is related to learning outcomes because it enhances immediacy.Examines the proposed mechanisms of motivation and attention as mediators of the path from immediacy to affective and cognitive learning. Implications of study findings for practitioners: Taking into consideration vocal expressiveness of artificial agents during the design process is essential for increased learning.The combination of the vocal parameters of pitch and speech rate is effective for constructing vocal expressiveness.By showing the underlying mechanisms of artificial agents' nonverbal cues (i.e., vocal cues) on learning, it helps designers to make a better decisions during construction.The study's findings are also pertinent for human teachers in improving students' learning in traditional educational settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Immersive virtual reality (VR) is increasingly used in organizational training interventions. However, few studies have systematically investigated VR compared to standard training methods in actual organizational contexts. Objectives: The focus of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a VR simulation for training professionals in the biotech industry. Aligning training needs to unique media affordances, the study designed an immersive story‐based VR simulation for training customer‐facing employees on a new product and tested it in an international biotech company. Methods: The system was evaluated by comparing its effectiveness to a traditional video presentation with the same content in a randomized between subjects experiment. The sample consisted of 95 employees across three locations: Brazil, Denmark, and USA. Results: The VR simulation group performed better than the video presentation group on the outcomes of conceptual knowledge (d = 0.41) spatial knowledge (d = 0.61), transfer intentions (d = 0.57), enjoyment (d = 1.74), self‐efficacy (d = 0.68), perceived learning (d = 0.89), personal value (d = 0.83), and organizational value (d = 0.82), but no significant difference was found for factual knowledge (d = −0.10). Implications: Results suggest that VR simulations can be effective across cultures in organizational training interventions. VR is specifically effective when the goals of the training are to increase conceptual and spatial understanding as well as enjoyment, and self‐efficacy, but not factual knowledge. Furthermore, employees report higher levels of perceived learning, personal and organizational value and transfer intentions after VR training compared to standard video‐based training. Lay Description: What is currently known about the subject matter: Immersive virtual reality (VR) is increasingly used in organizational training interventions. This interest has especially surged amid recent global challenges, and the sudden need for companies and employees to adapt to the new remote working conditions.However, few studies have systematically investigated VR compared to standard training methods in actual organizational contexts that include a real‐world scenario and a representative testing sample.Applied research that assesses the outcomes of VR based training in realistic learning and training settings is needed. What their paper adds: We propose and test an interdisciplinary approach that links unique features of VR with training needs and multidimensional outcome measures in an organizational training context within the biotech industry in Brazil, Denmark and USA.The findings suggest that a specifically designed VR tool is superior to a comparable video presentation for the outcomes of spatial and conceptual knowledge acquisition and transfer intentions, but not factual knowledge acquisition.The VR group also reported significantly higher personal value, organizational value, self‐efficacy, perceived learning, and enjoyment compared to the video group. Implications of study findings for practitioners: The results support the value of using VR simulations in organizational training, specifically related to affective outcomes as well as spatial and conceptual knowledge and transfer intentions.The study suggests that it is not the medium of VR, but rather the alignment between the training goals with the instructional methods and the unique affordances of VR that will contribute to better or worse learning outcomes.The article describes how to evaluate the effectiveness of VR tools in applied contexts, suggesting that we have to evaluate the effectiveness of tested content with respect to different outcome variables, which coincide with the training outcomes of a particular organizational context.The project as a whole, can be used as a blueprint for future applied research efforts, exemplifying how to bridge gaps between small‐medium‐enterprises, international corporate companies and academic institutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Collaborative computer simulations are available on some online platforms which support students at distributed locations to synchronously collaborate on the simulations to learn sciences. However, how students collaborate with each other in collaborative simulations is not clear. Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate whether functional interdependency would influence learning. Methods: Two collaborative learning models with different functional interdependencies were examined (the synchronous model and the distributed accountability model). Multiple data sources obtained from 64 students were collected and analyzed. We discuss the collaborative learning with two levels of factors: the individual‐level factors (i.e., individual perceptions of teamwork quality, visual attention and learning performance before and after a simulation activity) and the pair‐level factors (i.e., discourse data and joint attention). Given that the pair‐level factors in the collaborative learning environment may affect the individual‐level factors, we further discuss the interactions of the two levels of factors in different collaborative learning models with hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) analysis. Results and Conclusions: The analytical results of the individual‐level factors found participants in the distributed accountability model demonstrated more frequent and longer attention to the learning activity. Furthermore, the results indicated that the two simulation learning activities would enhance the participants' learning performance except in Q2. For the pair‐level factors, the results demonstrated that the participants in the distributed accountability model showed more active discourse segments but similar joint attention patterns in the learning activity. The results of the HLM analysis indicated that the students in the distributed accountability model had to collaborate with their partners through more constructive dialogue, and focused on the same areas of interest to enhance their learning performance, as the complexity of the distributed accountability design was implemented in a simulation learning activity. Major takeaways: We found that the increase of functional interdependency cannot guarantee students' learning effect in collaborative learning and may hinder the communication that is needed during collaboration. Researcher may need to consider other collaboration tools to enhance the reciprocal reflection. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Collaborative simulations are helpful in making the learning process cohesive.The learning effects of functional interdependence in collaborative learning are under debate. What this paper adds: We examined collaborative learning models with different functional interdependencies.We discuss the collaborative learning with the individual‐, the pair‐level factors and their interactions Implications for practice and/or policy: The importance of decreasing cognitive load induced by simulation with high functional interdependency.It is necessary to increase participants' transactive and constructive engagement in collaborative models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Failure to effectively organize and manage learning time is an important factor influencing online learners' performance. Investigation of time‐investment patterns for online learning will provide educators with useful knowledge of how learners engage in and regulate their online learning and support them in tailoring online course design and teaching. However, understanding of how learners invest and manage their time during online learning remains limited. Objectives: This study aims to discover the typical time‐investment patterns of MOOC learners and their temporal‐learning characteristics based on a systematic time‐investment analysis framework and their relationship with learning performance. Methods: Based on a proposed time‐investment‐analysis framework, this study applied statistical, cluster and lag sequential analyses to investigate learners' time‐investment patterns and their relationships with learning performance, session time allocation, and learning sequences by analysing the learning data from 12,463 participants of a Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) in China. Results and Conclusions: Seven time‐investment patterns of MOOC learners were defined, and learning performance was found to differ among them. Further analysis shows that high performers invested time throughout the whole course and allocated time to multiple activities, exam‐takers performed better in time management and produced more behavioural sequences related to cognitive strategy and recourse use, and learners' motivation and prior knowledge affected the management and effectiveness of their time investment. Implications: The results support the recognition and evaluation of online learning time‐investment patterns and suggest relevant cues for improving MOOC design and teaching. Lay Description: What is currently known about the subject matter: Insufficient learning time affects learning persistence and effectiveness in open and online education programs.Learning time investment and management regarded as an element of self‐regulated learning is a predictor of learning performance.Some proxy behavioural variables or characteristics of online learning time management have been found in previous studies.Learning analysis can be used to dig the knowledge implicit in learning data for online teaching evaluation and improvement. What is paper adds to the subject: Based on a comprehensive analytic framework, seven time‐investment patterns of MOOC learners and their relationship with achievement are identified.Under different time frames, learners' time allocation and learning behaviour pattern are different.Learners performing better in time management across course learning allocate more time to multiple activities in session learning.Exam‐takers perform better in time management across MOOC learning, and produce more behaviour sequences related to cognitive strategy and course recourse use. The implications of study findings for practitioners: The recognition of time investment pattern can support online course design and teaching improvement.MOOC design and teaching need to consider the differences in learners' time resources and their ability of time management.MOOC design and teaching need to encourage learners lacking of performance motivation to engage in various learning activities instead of just watching videos.MOOC design need consider the differences in learners' prior knowledge, and offer personalized learning path based on assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The increased availability of immersive virtual reality (IVR) has led to a surge of immersive technology applications in education. Nevertheless, very little is known about how to effectively design instruction for this new media, so that it would benefit learning and associated cognitive processing. Objectives: This experiment explores if and how traditional instructional design principles from 2D media translate to IVR. Specifically, it focuses on studying the underlying mechanisms of the redundancy‐principle, which states that presenting the same information concurrently in two different sensory channels can cause cognitive overload and might impede learning. Methods: A total of 73 participants learned through a specifically‐designed educational IVR application in three versions: (1) auditory representation format, (2) written representation format, and (3) a redundancy format (i.e. both written and auditory formats). The study utilized advanced psychophysiological methods of Electroencephalography (EEG) and eye‐tracking (ET), learning measures and self‐report scales. Results and Conclusions: Results show that participants in the redundancy condition performed equally well on retention and transfer post‐tests. Similarly, results from the subjective measures, EEG and ET suggest that redundant content was not found to be more cognitively demanding than written content alone. Implications: Findings suggest that the redundancy effect might not generalize to VR as originally anticipated in 2D media research, providing direct implications to the design of IVR tools for education. Lay Description: What is currently known about the topic: Immersive virtual reality (IVR) applications for learning are on the rise, yet little is known about how to effectively design this medium to impact learning and cognition.Even in IVR, many use traditional learning content of text and audio, and ground instructional design decisions in 2D media design guidelines, such as the Redundancy Principle.Redundancy principle states that presenting the same information concurrently in two different sensory channels can cause cognitive overload and might impede learning. What this paper adds to the field: This study examines if and how the Redundancy Principle translates from traditional 2D media to immersive VR.EEG, Eye‐tracking and objective measures were used to study the underlying mechanisms of redundant information processing. The implications of study findings for practitioners: Results show that the redundancy effect might not generalize to VR as originally anticipated in 2D media research.Study shows that the redundancy group performed equally well on learning outcomes and it wasn't found to be more cognitively loading.The study is amongst the first to reveal that participants spend most of their time reading in the redundancy condition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tingir et al. (2017) concluded from their meta‐analysis that the subject areas taught through mobile devices had significantly higher achievement scores (d = 0.48) than the ones taught with traditional teaching methods. Given the relatively high positive effect of mobile devices on student achievement, we carefully analysed the selected research in this meta‐analysis. We reviewed Tingir et al.'s (2017) meta‐analysis based on analysis of the methodology of the selected research, while drawing on the work of Slavin (2003), Cheung and Slavin (2016), and Sung et al. (2019). Twelve of the 14 (86%) studies included in the meta‐analysis done by Tingir and his team (2017) present such major methodological flaws that they should not have been included. Our analysis leads us to believe that the conclusion of Tingir et al. (2017) is not justified. It is recognized that duration of experiment is negatively correlated with effect size: the shorter the duration, the higher the effect (Burston, 2015; Slavin & Lake, 2009). Although demanding more effort, the field of education must raise the bar if it is to have knowledge of acceptable value. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic?: Tingir et al. (2017) concluded from their meta‐analysis that: "the subject areas taught through mobile devices had significantly higher achievement scores than the ones taught with traditional teaching methods" (p. 366). What this paper adds?: We therefore reviewed the meta‐analysis by Tingir et al. (2017) and the underlying research. Our analysis leads us to believe that the conclusion of Tingir et al. (2017) is not justified.The data on reading used in the meta‐analysis by Tingir et al. (2017) do not make it possible to calculate a legitimate effect size for reading or to make a judgment about the effectiveness of mobile devices in the classroom.With respect to mathematics, the weakness and biases of the studies selected in the meta‐analysis by Tingir et al. (2017) should not have allowed them to calculate an effect size and do not provide a clear answer on the effectiveness of mobiles devices in the classroom.The studies in science selected by Tingir et al. (2017) demonstrate a set of methodological flaws that cannot provide a sound basis for determining a convincing effect of mobile device in the classroom on student achievement. Implications for practice and/or policy: Tingir and associates (2017) calculated an overall mean effect of 0.48 for mobiles devices on student achievement by combining research in reading (effect = 0.666; N = 3), mathematics (effect = 0.16; N = 3) and science (effect = 0.528; N = 8). The authors did not do a school‐level analysis (elementary, high school) in their school subject groupings due to the small number of studies, particularly in reading and mathematics.Twelve of the 14 (86%) studies included in the meta‐analysis done by Tingir and his team (2017) present such major methodological flaws that they should not have been included. As mentioned in the introduction, Slavin and his colleagues found different results in a related field. Slavin et al. (2009) found an effect size of 0.11 for the use of technology in the classroom, in computer‐assisted and computer‐based instruction, and an effect size of 0.05 for the use of digital tools 10 years later (Slavin, 2019). Given all the above, it is our opinion that the meta‐analysis by Tingir et al. (2017) cannot be used to justify the use of mobile devices in the classroom. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the increasing pervasiveness of today's digital society, mobile devices are changing the face of education. Students can interact with mobile devices in context‐aware environment. This paper presents a mobile application based on expert system (Plant‐E) for students to acquire knowledge about plant classification by answering decision‐making questions. In order to study effectiveness of Plant‐E and cognitive load of students who experience different kinds of interaction in learning process, another mobile application (Plant‐G) only providing information pages of plants was developed. A quasi‐experiment was conducted with three classes of 137 seventh graders. The three classes, Class A with 46 students using Plant‐E in campus, Class B with 44 students using Plant‐G in campus, and Class C with 47 students using Plant‐G in a traditional classroom, constitute three groups with different interaction complexity. The research conducted pretest, posttest, and delayed test to evaluate learning performance of students in three classes and used a questionnaire to investigate their perceptions and attitudes towards proposed system. Results show that interaction complexity has an impact on students' learning performance and mental effort in mobile learning; the higher the interaction complexity is, the higher mental effort and the better learning performance in mobile learning will be. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Mobile devices can be used to meet the urgency of learning need and can provide guidance and clues for learners in context‐aware environment.During mobile learning in context‐aware environment, students need to interact with mobile devices and environment.Mental effort reflects cognitive load related to interaction complexity, and it can affect learning performance.Self‐efficacy affects the degree of mental effort by affecting the firmness of performance goal.Cognitive load and learning performance are the main concerns that need to be considered when evaluating the effectiveness of mobile learning. What this paper adds: Interaction complexity has an impact on students' learning performance and mental effort in mobile learning.In terms of the three levels of interaction complexity in this study, the higher the interaction complexity is, the better the results that students will get in mobile learning.The higher the interaction complexity is, the higher the mental effort that students invested into in mobile learning would be.The medium self‐efficacy group invested the most mental effort and got the best grades, rather than the high or low group.Rule‐based mobile learning expert system is feasible and effective for students to learn by interacting with learning objects in context‐aware environment. Implications for practice and/or policy: Efforts should be made to make mobile learning systems more interactive; for example, learners can learn more effectively by interacting with mobile system, which can improve the frequency of observing learning objects.Rule‐based mobile learning expert system can give learners more opportunities to know how experts do when solving problems and can provide a potential method for students to learn in context‐aware environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Learning and teaching algebra concepts are frequent problems for both students and teachers alike. Students struggle to learn algebra, and teachers struggle to identify the best way to teach algebra. It is recurrent that teachers use instructional methods that promote memorization, and, consequently, the learning process may prove unsatisfactory. This paper introduces Virtual Algebra Tiles, an open educational resource whose purpose is to enable students to use algebra tiles from a computer to enhance their knowledge of algebra concepts. To evaluate the effectiveness of the system, we designed a case study. The participants were 40 students of engineering degrees who were randomly assigned to experimental or control groups. Results indicate that the system has a large effect size (ES = 0.83, p < 0.001) on learning effectiveness and a promising long‐term knowledge retention (ES = 0.79, p < 0.001). Students concluded that this version of algebra tiles is more motivating than other versions, because it is presented in a format that stands natural to them. Students feel more comfortable in virtual environments, and therefore, the learning process becomes a more pleasant task. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Inadequate teaching methodologies can lead to student failure.It is necessary to decrease the emphasis on memorization and to favour active learning techniques.The use of mathematical manipulatives increases students' learning gains.Algebra tiles are an educational resource that helps students understand algebra concepts by using geometric figures. What this paper adds: Virtual Algebra Tiles is a multimedia version of the educational resource algebra tiles.Virtual Algebra Tiles has a large effect size on students' learning achievements.Virtual Algebra Tiles improves students' long‐term knowledge retention. Implications for practices and/or policy: Teachers should participate in the development of digital pedagogical material to enrich their lectures.It is necessary to develop more open educational resources, which can be accessed by students and teachers.Digital educational resources must take into account the special needs of particular users. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper seeks to show how‘policy’,‘management’ and‘information and communications technology’ (ICT) were constructed for schools in England between 2000 and 2003 and to discuss some effects of these constructions on teaching and learning in the institutions involved in the InterActive Education Project. It argues that their contribution collectively constituted‘ICT’ as a particular kind and form of challenge for schools, and that recognising the nature of this constitution is crucial to understanding the relationship between ICT and teaching and learning. Informed by an abductive methodology, this paper draws on analyses of policy documents and interviews with the head teachers of the educational institutions taking part in the InterActive Education Project to show how the possibilities and opportunities of using ICT were shaped by those constructions. It suggests that the main policy framing ICT in education over the period in question, the National Grid for Learning, had the provision of hardware and infrastructure as its main target, but offered little advice on how they might be used. This constituted the core of the management problem of ICT for schools. The final section of the paper outlines some of the mechanisms through which schools addressed these issues and discusses some possible implications for what counts as‘teaching and learning’ with‘ICT’. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Due to the global COVID‐19 pandemic, online learning became the only way to learn during this unprecedented crisis. This study began with a simple but vital question: What factors influenced the success of online learning during the COVID‐19 pandemic with a focus on online learning self‐efficacy? Objectives: The purpose of this study was to examine the structural relationship among self‐efficacy (SE) in time management, SE in technology use, SE in an online learning environment, and learning engagement. Methods: The participants of the study were 1205 undergraduates who were enrolled in a residential undergraduate program in South Korea in spring semester, 2020. The online survey was administered to collect data for this research and the survey results were analyzed using structural equation modeling. Results and Conclusions: SE in technology use had a significant but negative influence on learning engagement and had a positive impact on SE in an online learning environment. SE in time management had a significant positive impact on SE in an online learning environment and learning engagement. SE in an online learning environment also significantly influenced learning engagement. Implications: SE in technology use itself did not enhance learning engagement. In addition, indirect effects of SE in technology use and SE in time management on learning engagement through SE in an online learning environment were confirmed in this study. This indicates the influential role of SE in an online learning environment on learning engagement of online learners. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: COVID‐19 forced almost all students to learn online.Time management plays a major role in the success of online learning.Technology self‐efficacy is a requirement in online learning.The learning engagement variable explains learning achievement and attitudes. What this paper adds: Self‐efficacy (SE) in time management and SE in technology use enhanced SE in an online learning environment.SE in technology use itself did not enhance learning engagement.SE in time management and in SE an online learning environment significantly influenced learning engagement.SE in an online learning environment mediated the relationship between SE in technology use and learning engagement as well as between SE in time management and learning engagement. Implications for practice and/or policy: It is important to promote students' online learning self‐efficacy to enhance learning engagement in online learning.Practitioners should be aware that SE in technology use improves learning engagement through SE in an online learning environment.SE in time management should be promoted for successful online learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]